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1 | 00:00:01,200 | 00:00:04,233 | ||
2 | 00:00:06,100 --> 00:00:07,866 It creeps! | 00:00:06,100 --> 00:00:07,866 It creeps! | ||
3 | 00:00:07,900 | 00:00:11,000 | It crawls! | It crawls! |
4 | 00:00:11,033 | 00:00:12,333 | It's this big, blobby yellow thing. | It's this big, blobby yellow thing. |
5 | 00:00:13,866 | 00:00:16,900 | It's slime mold! | It's slime mold! |
6 | 00:00:16,933 | 00:00:18,533 | ||
7 | 00:00:18,566 --> 00:00:23,200 A slithering shape-shifter like no other on this planet. | 00:00:18,566 --> 00:00:23,200 A slithering shape-shifter like no other on this planet. | ||
8 | 00:00:23,233 | 00:00:24,900 | It reminded us | It reminded us |
9 | 00:00:24,933 | 00:00:27,700 | of this alien organism from a '50s movie | of this alien organism from a '50s movie |
10 | 00:00:27,733 | 00:00:29,400 | that ate people. | that ate people. |
11 | 00:00:29,433 | 00:00:30,900 | "The Blob"! | "The Blob"! |
12 | 00:00:30,933 | 00:00:35,366 | This one-celled wonder has no brain. | This one-celled wonder has no brain. |
13 | 00:00:35,400 | 00:00:37,766 | No brain, no organs, no neurons. | No brain, no organs, no neurons. |
14 | 00:00:37,800 | 00:00:39,100 | Yet it's able to do some of the behaviors | Yet it's able to do some of the behaviors |
15 | 00:00:39,133 | 00:00:42,000 | we normally associate with animals with brains. | we normally associate with animals with brains. |
16 | 00:00:42,033 | 00:00:44,166 | How does it solve a maze? | How does it solve a maze? |
17 | 00:00:44,200 | 00:00:45,166 | It is amazing. | It is amazing. |
18 | 00:00:45,200 | 00:00:47,500 | Escape captivity? | Escape captivity? |
19 | 00:00:47,533 | 00:00:50,266 | Compete for resources? | Compete for resources? |
20 | 00:00:50,300 | 00:00:53,866 | Build efficient networks? | Build efficient networks? |
21 | 00:00:53,900 | 00:00:56,900 | You start to think, does this organism | You start to think, does this organism |
22 | 00:00:56,933 | 00:00:58,366 | possess intelligence? | possess intelligence? |
23 | 00:00:58,400 | 00:01:01,100 | All of these are fundamental components | All of these are fundamental components |
24 | 00:01:01,133 | 00:01:02,200 | to being smart. | to being smart. |
25 | 00:01:02,233 | 00:01:03,933 | No brain? | No brain? |
26 | 00:01:03,966 | 00:01:05,033 | No problem. | No problem. |
27 | 00:01:05,066 | 00:01:06,766 | Clearly now, we see | Clearly now, we see |
28 | 00:01:06,800 | 00:01:09,100 | that this can be done by one cell. | that this can be done by one cell. |
29 | 00:01:09,133 | 00:01:11,500 | Can this ancient organism shed new light | Can this ancient organism shed new light |
30 | 00:01:11,533 | 00:01:14,433 | on the evolutionary origins of intelligence? | on the evolutionary origins of intelligence? |
31 | 00:01:14,466 | 00:01:17,900 | We can think of them as how intelligence started | We can think of them as how intelligence started |
32 | 00:01:17,933 | 00:01:19,066 | way back. | way back. |
33 | 00:01:19,100 | 00:01:22,633 | "The Secret Mind of Slime," | "The Secret Mind of Slime," |
34 | 00:01:22,666 | 00:01:25,033 | next, on "NOVA." | next, on "NOVA." |
35 | 00:01:25,066 | 00:01:28,133 | ||
36 | 00:01:44,933 --> 00:01:45,466 Major funding for "NOVA" is provided by the following: | 00:01:44,933 --> 00:01:45,466 Major funding for "NOVA" is provided by the following: | ||
37 | 00:01:45,500 | 00:01:49,033 | ||
38 | 00:01:49,066 --> 00:01:52,700 Lurking in the forest's shadowy undergrowth | 00:01:49,066 --> 00:01:52,700 Lurking in the forest's shadowy undergrowth | ||
39 | 00:01:52,733 | 00:01:55,466 | lies an unlikely predator. | lies an unlikely predator. |
40 | 00:01:55,500 | 00:02:00,600 | It creeps along, stalking its prey. | It creeps along, stalking its prey. |
41 | 00:02:00,633 | 00:02:04,533 | Yet it is not an animal. | Yet it is not an animal. |
42 | 00:02:04,566 | 00:02:09,366 | It has a fondness for dark, humid places, | It has a fondness for dark, humid places, |
43 | 00:02:09,400 | 00:02:11,200 | yet it is not a fungus | yet it is not a fungus |
44 | 00:02:11,233 | 00:02:14,866 | nor a plant. | nor a plant. |
45 | 00:02:14,900 | 00:02:18,933 | It's a single-celled organism, | It's a single-celled organism, |
46 | 00:02:18,966 | 00:02:20,966 | but not a bacterium. | but not a bacterium. |
47 | 00:02:21,000 | 00:02:22,933 | ||
48 | 00:02:22,966 --> 00:02:27,566 It's known as slime mold. | 00:02:22,966 --> 00:02:27,566 It's known as slime mold. | ||
49 | 00:02:27,600 | 00:02:31,000 | It has no eyes, no mouth, no stomach, | It has no eyes, no mouth, no stomach, |
50 | 00:02:31,033 | 00:02:32,700 | no legs. | no legs. |
51 | 00:02:32,733 | 00:02:35,433 | Yet it can "see," "smell," | Yet it can "see," "smell," |
52 | 00:02:35,466 | 00:02:37,133 | and move around | and move around |
53 | 00:02:37,166 | 00:02:40,433 | through its pulsating network of veins, | through its pulsating network of veins, |
54 | 00:02:40,466 | 00:02:43,233 | gorging itself on bacteria, | gorging itself on bacteria, |
55 | 00:02:43,266 | 00:02:44,933 | fungi, | fungi, |
56 | 00:02:44,966 | 00:02:46,666 | yeasts, | yeasts, |
57 | 00:02:46,700 | 00:02:51,800 | and growing exponentially. | and growing exponentially. |
58 | 00:02:51,833 | 00:02:55,800 | This strange yet humble creature holds secrets that have | This strange yet humble creature holds secrets that have |
59 | 00:02:55,833 | 00:02:59,833 | biologists, neuroscientists, and mathematicians | biologists, neuroscientists, and mathematicians |
60 | 00:02:59,866 | 00:03:02,200 | scratching their heads. | scratching their heads. |
61 | 00:03:02,233 | 00:03:06,566 | Because this organism, without a brain or a nervous system, | Because this organism, without a brain or a nervous system, |
62 | 00:03:06,600 | 00:03:09,666 | seems capable of making choices, | seems capable of making choices, |
63 | 00:03:09,700 | 00:03:12,200 | solving complex problems, | solving complex problems, |
64 | 00:03:12,233 | 00:03:15,966 | and devising strategies. | and devising strategies. |
65 | 00:03:16,000 | 00:03:19,866 | And it is forcing scientists to rethink intelligence | And it is forcing scientists to rethink intelligence |
66 | 00:03:19,900 | 00:03:26,666 | as something that does not imply a need for a brain. | as something that does not imply a need for a brain. |
67 | 00:03:28,366 | 00:03:34,433 | ||
68 | 00:03:34,466 --> 00:03:38,433 Tanya Latty is a researcher at the University of Sydney | 00:03:34,466 --> 00:03:38,433 Tanya Latty is a researcher at the University of Sydney | ||
69 | 00:03:38,466 | 00:03:40,833 | who studies slime mold. | who studies slime mold. |
70 | 00:03:40,866 | 00:03:43,266 | You can find slime mold all over the place. | You can find slime mold all over the place. |
71 | 00:03:43,300 | 00:03:45,400 | They're in leaf litter, they're in the soil, | They're in leaf litter, they're in the soil, |
72 | 00:03:45,433 | 00:03:47,366 | they're on bits of wood. | they're on bits of wood. |
73 | 00:03:47,400 | 00:03:51,566 | They're small structures that almost look like mushrooms. | They're small structures that almost look like mushrooms. |
74 | 00:03:51,600 | 00:03:56,300 | Not only is Tanya an expert on slime mold, | Not only is Tanya an expert on slime mold, |
75 | 00:03:56,333 | 00:03:59,033 | she's one of its biggest fans. | she's one of its biggest fans. |
76 | 00:03:59,066 | 00:04:00,766 | How could you not love them? | How could you not love them? |
77 | 00:04:00,800 | 00:04:03,400 | It's this big, blobby, yellow thing, you know, | It's this big, blobby, yellow thing, you know, |
78 | 00:04:03,433 | 00:04:05,000 | it's just fundamentally cool. | it's just fundamentally cool. |
79 | 00:04:05,033 | 00:04:06,433 | I stand by that! | I stand by that! |
80 | 00:04:06,466 | 00:04:09,133 | "Slime Mold Identification and Appreciation." | "Slime Mold Identification and Appreciation." |
81 | 00:04:09,166 | 00:04:11,266 | There it is. | There it is. |
82 | 00:04:11,300 | 00:04:12,833 | She even follows them on Facebook. | She even follows them on Facebook. |
83 | 00:04:12,866 | 00:04:14,066 | The spores are gorgeous. | The spores are gorgeous. |
84 | 00:04:14,100 | 00:04:15,800 | They're, they're beautiful. | They're, they're beautiful. |
85 | 00:04:15,833 | 00:04:18,766 | ||
86 | 00:04:18,800 --> 00:04:21,366 The slime molds might be one of the most abundant things | 00:04:18,800 --> 00:04:21,366 The slime molds might be one of the most abundant things | ||
87 | 00:04:21,400 | 00:04:23,300 | in the soil. | in the soil. |
88 | 00:04:23,333 | 00:04:26,900 | There are spores everywhere. | There are spores everywhere. |
89 | 00:04:26,933 | 00:04:28,933 | ||
90 | 00:04:28,966 --> 00:04:30,066 Biologists have puzzled | 00:04:28,966 --> 00:04:30,066 Biologists have puzzled | ||
91 | 00:04:30,100 | 00:04:32,733 | over where exactly this creature fits | over where exactly this creature fits |
92 | 00:04:32,766 | 00:04:35,200 | into the great tree of life. | into the great tree of life. |
93 | 00:04:35,233 | 00:04:37,900 | Slime molds branched off from that tree | Slime molds branched off from that tree |
94 | 00:04:37,933 | 00:04:42,200 | before the plants, the fungi, and the animals. | before the plants, the fungi, and the animals. |
95 | 00:04:42,233 | 00:04:45,300 | They're single-celled organisms, but the type of cell they have | They're single-celled organisms, but the type of cell they have |
96 | 00:04:45,333 | 00:04:48,166 | is quite different from bacteria. | is quite different from bacteria. |
97 | 00:04:48,200 | 00:04:51,933 | There's at least 900 different species of slime mold | There's at least 900 different species of slime mold |
98 | 00:04:51,966 | 00:04:53,266 | that we know about, | that we know about, |
99 | 00:04:53,300 | 00:04:55,266 | and that number is probably a massive underestimate. | and that number is probably a massive underestimate. |
100 | 00:04:55,300 | 00:04:57,633 | ||
101 | 00:04:57,666 --> 00:04:59,566 The slime mold most people think about | 00:04:57,666 --> 00:04:59,566 The slime mold most people think about | ||
102 | 00:04:59,600 | 00:05:01,466 | is Physarum polycephalum. | is Physarum polycephalum. |
103 | 00:05:01,500 | 00:05:04,166 | It's bright yellow, it grows really fast, | It's bright yellow, it grows really fast, |
104 | 00:05:04,200 | 00:05:06,200 | and it's become kind of our lab rat | and it's become kind of our lab rat |
105 | 00:05:06,233 | 00:05:07,333 | most scientists are studying, | most scientists are studying, |
106 | 00:05:07,366 | 00:05:09,333 | probably because it's the easiest one | probably because it's the easiest one |
107 | 00:05:09,366 | 00:05:11,333 | to grow in the lab. | to grow in the lab. |
108 | 00:05:11,366 | 00:05:13,466 | ||
109 | 00:05:13,500 --> 00:05:17,866 Some of them have great names, like the Dog's Vomit. | 00:05:13,500 --> 00:05:17,866 Some of them have great names, like the Dog's Vomit. | ||
110 | 00:05:17,900 | 00:05:22,900 | They also come in reds and grays and browns and white. | They also come in reds and grays and browns and white. |
111 | 00:05:25,833 | 00:05:30,066 | Tanya was a latecomer to slime mold research. | Tanya was a latecomer to slime mold research. |
112 | 00:05:30,100 | 00:05:35,166 | She began her career studying the behavior of insects. | She began her career studying the behavior of insects. |
113 | 00:05:35,200 | 00:05:36,466 | I'm an entomologist by training. | I'm an entomologist by training. |
114 | 00:05:36,500 | 00:05:38,133 | I work with ants, | I work with ants, |
115 | 00:05:38,166 | 00:05:42,166 | bees, and other invertebrates. | bees, and other invertebrates. |
116 | 00:05:42,200 | 00:05:44,533 | ||
117 | 00:05:44,566 --> 00:05:46,133 But ten years ago, | 00:05:44,566 --> 00:05:46,133 But ten years ago, | ||
118 | 00:05:46,166 | 00:05:49,533 | while researching bees at Hokkaido University, | while researching bees at Hokkaido University, |
119 | 00:05:49,566 | 00:05:54,233 | she had a chance encounter with slime mold | she had a chance encounter with slime mold |
120 | 00:05:54,266 | 00:05:57,900 | through one of the most respected experts in the field: | through one of the most respected experts in the field: |
121 | 00:05:57,933 | 00:06:01,366 | Professor Toshiyuki Nakagaki. | Professor Toshiyuki Nakagaki. |
122 | 00:06:03,166 | 00:06:08,300 | Slime mold is a serious subject of study in Japan, | Slime mold is a serious subject of study in Japan, |
123 | 00:06:08,333 | 00:06:13,266 | one going back generations. | one going back generations. |
124 | 00:06:13,300 | 00:06:14,733 | The Emperor Hirohito himself | The Emperor Hirohito himself |
125 | 00:06:14,766 | 00:06:16,466 | was a learned biologist | was a learned biologist |
126 | 00:06:16,500 | 00:06:21,500 | who established a taxonomy of slime mold, | who established a taxonomy of slime mold, |
127 | 00:06:21,533 | 00:06:25,200 | and even discovered a new species of the organism. | and even discovered a new species of the organism. |
128 | 00:06:25,233 | 00:06:29,700 | In my research, I focus on this single, simple cell | In my research, I focus on this single, simple cell |
129 | 00:06:29,733 | 00:06:34,833 | through the disciplines of physics and math. | through the disciplines of physics and math. |
130 | 00:06:34,866 | 00:06:36,366 | I was able to see how he was doing things | I was able to see how he was doing things |
131 | 00:06:36,400 | 00:06:39,766 | and learn a little bit about the slime mold. | and learn a little bit about the slime mold. |
132 | 00:06:39,800 | 00:06:41,800 | Toshiyuki had been studying | Toshiyuki had been studying |
133 | 00:06:41,833 | 00:06:43,700 | how this curious organism would react | how this curious organism would react |
134 | 00:06:43,733 | 00:06:49,466 | when faced with a challenge traditionally posed to animals. | when faced with a challenge traditionally posed to animals. |
135 | 00:06:50,933 | 00:06:53,400 | He did some of the first really awesome experiments | He did some of the first really awesome experiments |
136 | 00:06:53,433 | 00:06:55,733 | on slime molds solving mazes. | on slime molds solving mazes. |
137 | 00:06:57,233 | 00:07:00,466 | Could a slime mold find food | Could a slime mold find food |
138 | 00:07:00,500 | 00:07:04,366 | placed at the far end of a labyrinth? | placed at the far end of a labyrinth? |
139 | 00:07:04,400 | 00:07:08,800 | ||
140 | 00:07:08,833 --> 00:07:11,933 I had never even heard of slime mold before I took this job. | 00:07:08,833 --> 00:07:11,933 I had never even heard of slime mold before I took this job. | ||
141 | 00:07:14,000 | 00:07:17,933 | So here you have this organism that has no brain, no organs, | So here you have this organism that has no brain, no organs, |
142 | 00:07:17,966 | 00:07:20,300 | no neurons of any kind. | no neurons of any kind. |
143 | 00:07:20,333 | 00:07:23,133 | Yet it's able to do some of the behaviors | Yet it's able to do some of the behaviors |
144 | 00:07:23,166 | 00:07:26,766 | we normally associate with animals with brains. | we normally associate with animals with brains. |
145 | 00:07:28,533 | 00:07:32,100 | ||
146 | 00:07:40,000 --> 00:07:42,966 It is mysterious. | 00:07:40,000 --> 00:07:42,966 It is mysterious. | ||
147 | 00:07:43,000 | 00:07:45,000 | Astounding. | Astounding. |
148 | 00:07:45,033 | 00:07:48,333 | Solving a maze is amazing. | Solving a maze is amazing. |
149 | 00:07:48,366 | 00:07:52,266 | ||
150 | 00:07:52,300 --> 00:07:54,566 How can a single-celled organism | 00:07:52,300 --> 00:07:54,566 How can a single-celled organism | ||
151 | 00:07:54,600 | 00:07:56,766 | have such a capacity? | have such a capacity? |
152 | 00:07:59,033 | 00:08:03,466 | Toshiyuki has devoted his career to studying this question. | Toshiyuki has devoted his career to studying this question. |
153 | 00:08:03,500 | 00:08:04,933 | I mean, when you think about it, | I mean, when you think about it, |
154 | 00:08:04,966 | 00:08:08,466 | 99% of the living things on our planet are brainless. | 99% of the living things on our planet are brainless. |
155 | 00:08:08,500 | 00:08:11,466 | But they need to find food, | But they need to find food, |
156 | 00:08:11,500 | 00:08:14,500 | they need to find partners to reproduce often. | they need to find partners to reproduce often. |
157 | 00:08:14,533 | 00:08:17,433 | They may need to hide from predators. | They may need to hide from predators. |
158 | 00:08:17,466 | 00:08:20,100 | How do you do all of that when you don't have a brain? | How do you do all of that when you don't have a brain? |
159 | 00:08:20,133 | 00:08:24,300 | ||
160 | 00:08:24,333 --> 00:08:26,500 When I came back to Australia, I thought | 00:08:24,333 --> 00:08:26,500 When I came back to Australia, I thought | ||
161 | 00:08:26,533 | 00:08:31,400 | it would be awesome to have one of these as a lab pet. | it would be awesome to have one of these as a lab pet. |
162 | 00:08:31,433 | 00:08:32,700 | And it lived in my desk for a few weeks. | And it lived in my desk for a few weeks. |
163 | 00:08:32,733 | 00:08:37,766 | ||
164 | 00:08:37,800 --> 00:08:40,100 I started to notice that it was doing things | 00:08:37,800 --> 00:08:40,100 I started to notice that it was doing things | ||
165 | 00:08:40,133 | 00:08:42,700 | a lot like my ants were doing. | a lot like my ants were doing. |
166 | 00:08:42,733 | 00:08:44,933 | ||
167 | 00:08:44,966 --> 00:08:48,833 So she introduced Physarum to one of her colleagues, | 00:08:44,966 --> 00:08:48,833 So she introduced Physarum to one of her colleagues, | ||
168 | 00:08:48,866 | 00:08:51,600 | Audrey Dussutour. | Audrey Dussutour. |
169 | 00:08:51,633 | 00:08:52,700 | I was a post-doc in Australia | I was a post-doc in Australia |
170 | 00:08:52,733 | 00:08:55,033 | studying nutrition in ants. | studying nutrition in ants. |
171 | 00:08:56,166 | 00:08:59,833 | It looked like an old omelet. | It looked like an old omelet. |
172 | 00:08:59,866 | 00:09:05,500 | The next day, it had escaped from the box we had put him in. | The next day, it had escaped from the box we had put him in. |
173 | 00:09:05,533 | 00:09:08,000 | It reminded us | It reminded us |
174 | 00:09:08,033 | 00:09:11,533 | of this alien organism from a '50s movie | of this alien organism from a '50s movie |
175 | 00:09:11,566 | 00:09:13,933 | that ate people... | that ate people... |
176 | 00:09:17,133 | 00:09:19,100 | And grew and grew as it ate. | And grew and grew as it ate. |
177 | 00:09:19,133 | 00:09:20,933 | It's unstoppable, it just kind of keeps coming. | It's unstoppable, it just kind of keeps coming. |
178 | 00:09:20,966 | 00:09:24,600 | And then the world could fall before the blood-curdling threat | And then the world could fall before the blood-curdling threat |
179 | 00:09:24,633 | 00:09:26,233 | of "The Blob"! | of "The Blob"! |
180 | 00:09:28,466 | 00:09:31,200 | Physarum doesn't eat people. | Physarum doesn't eat people. |
181 | 00:09:31,233 | 00:09:34,066 | It eats oatmeal, but it's really a glutton. | It eats oatmeal, but it's really a glutton. |
182 | 00:09:34,100 | 00:09:36,800 | It doubles in size every day. | It doubles in size every day. |
183 | 00:09:36,833 | 00:09:39,266 | I nicknamed it "Blob." | I nicknamed it "Blob." |
184 | 00:09:39,300 | 00:09:44,066 | Physarum began consuming their time and attention. | Physarum began consuming their time and attention. |
185 | 00:09:44,100 | 00:09:46,500 | And soon, Tanya and Audrey | And soon, Tanya and Audrey |
186 | 00:09:46,533 | 00:09:48,600 | shifted the focus of their research | shifted the focus of their research |
187 | 00:09:48,633 | 00:09:51,233 | to this remarkable creature, | to this remarkable creature, |
188 | 00:09:51,266 | 00:09:55,766 | so radically different than any other they'd studied, | so radically different than any other they'd studied, |
189 | 00:09:55,800 | 00:10:00,200 | with abilities beyond what could be expected | with abilities beyond what could be expected |
190 | 00:10:00,233 | 00:10:02,166 | from a single cell, | from a single cell, |
191 | 00:10:02,200 | 00:10:07,033 | beginning with an unmistakable knack | beginning with an unmistakable knack |
192 | 00:10:07,066 | 00:10:09,733 | for finding food. | for finding food. |
193 | 00:10:09,766 | 00:10:12,833 | Slime molds have receptors all over the cell body. | Slime molds have receptors all over the cell body. |
194 | 00:10:12,866 | 00:10:14,366 | And that allows them to detect | And that allows them to detect |
195 | 00:10:14,400 | 00:10:16,633 | different chemicals in the environment. | different chemicals in the environment. |
196 | 00:10:16,666 | 00:10:18,933 | It's very similar to our sense of smell. | It's very similar to our sense of smell. |
197 | 00:10:18,966 | 00:10:21,033 | We have receptors in our noses, | We have receptors in our noses, |
198 | 00:10:21,066 | 00:10:23,400 | and we're actually detecting chemicals | and we're actually detecting chemicals |
199 | 00:10:23,433 | 00:10:25,533 | coming off of our food in the air. | coming off of our food in the air. |
200 | 00:10:25,566 | 00:10:27,266 | Slime molds are doing the same thing, | Slime molds are doing the same thing, |
201 | 00:10:27,300 | 00:10:30,933 | but they're doing it through the soil or through a liquid medium. | but they're doing it through the soil or through a liquid medium. |
202 | 00:10:30,966 | 00:10:33,633 | Like the surface of a petri dish. | Like the surface of a petri dish. |
203 | 00:10:33,666 | 00:10:35,133 | They're able to sense the chemical cue | They're able to sense the chemical cue |
204 | 00:10:35,166 | 00:10:38,533 | and that's what draws them towards the food. | and that's what draws them towards the food. |
205 | 00:10:38,566 | 00:10:41,466 | Slime mold's receptors sense a wide range | Slime mold's receptors sense a wide range |
206 | 00:10:41,500 | 00:10:45,033 | of these cues in their environment. | of these cues in their environment. |
207 | 00:10:45,066 | 00:10:49,600 | It can detect moisture and perceive the pH. | It can detect moisture and perceive the pH. |
208 | 00:10:49,633 | 00:10:53,866 | It can perceive light because it has photoreceptors. | It can perceive light because it has photoreceptors. |
209 | 00:10:53,900 | 00:10:56,533 | So even though it is a single cell, it is, all at once, | So even though it is a single cell, it is, all at once, |
210 | 00:10:56,566 | 00:11:00,566 | an eye, nose, ear, and so on. | an eye, nose, ear, and so on. |
211 | 00:11:00,600 | 00:11:05,166 | But it was how Physarum used these senses | But it was how Physarum used these senses |
212 | 00:11:05,200 | 00:11:07,400 | that captured their attention: | that captured their attention: |
213 | 00:11:07,433 | 00:11:11,200 | an awareness of its environment; | an awareness of its environment; |
214 | 00:11:11,233 | 00:11:13,133 | an ability to navigate; | an ability to navigate; |
215 | 00:11:13,166 | 00:11:19,533 | and how it moved with seeming purpose. | and how it moved with seeming purpose. |
216 | 00:11:19,566 | 00:11:21,300 | Here's an organism that knows how to react | Here's an organism that knows how to react |
217 | 00:11:21,333 | 00:11:25,233 | and adapt to its environment, consistently and efficiently. | and adapt to its environment, consistently and efficiently. |
218 | 00:11:25,266 | 00:11:28,933 | They knew that Physarum's receptors | They knew that Physarum's receptors |
219 | 00:11:28,966 | 00:11:31,400 | allowed it to react to different stimuli. | allowed it to react to different stimuli. |
220 | 00:11:31,433 | 00:11:34,833 | It will move towards a substance, like sugar, | It will move towards a substance, like sugar, |
221 | 00:11:34,866 | 00:11:39,533 | but it will also move away from certain substances, like salt. | but it will also move away from certain substances, like salt. |
222 | 00:11:39,566 | 00:11:44,366 | But was Physarum simply reacting to these stimuli? | But was Physarum simply reacting to these stimuli? |
223 | 00:11:44,400 | 00:11:50,400 | Or was it using these receptors to do something more complex? | Or was it using these receptors to do something more complex? |
224 | 00:11:50,433 | 00:11:52,133 | Was it taking in this information | Was it taking in this information |
225 | 00:11:52,166 | 00:11:54,133 | about its environment | about its environment |
226 | 00:11:54,166 | 00:11:56,966 | and making choices? | and making choices? |
227 | 00:11:58,666 | 00:12:01,500 | So for their first experiment, | So for their first experiment, |
228 | 00:12:01,533 | 00:12:02,600 | they would present Physarum | they would present Physarum |
229 | 00:12:02,633 | 00:12:06,066 | with one of the most basic choices | with one of the most basic choices |
230 | 00:12:06,100 | 00:12:08,533 | facing any living organism-- | facing any living organism-- |
231 | 00:12:08,566 | 00:12:10,100 | what to eat. | what to eat. |
232 | 00:12:10,133 | 00:12:14,233 | We can offer it a choice between different food sources. | We can offer it a choice between different food sources. |
233 | 00:12:14,266 | 00:12:16,466 | The purpose of this experiment | The purpose of this experiment |
234 | 00:12:16,500 | 00:12:19,066 | was to see how Physarum regulates its nutritional needs. | was to see how Physarum regulates its nutritional needs. |
235 | 00:12:19,100 | 00:12:23,100 | But before they could even begin, | But before they could even begin, |
236 | 00:12:23,133 | 00:12:24,333 | they'd have to determine | they'd have to determine |
237 | 00:12:24,366 | 00:12:28,233 | what exactly Physarum's nutritional needs were. | what exactly Physarum's nutritional needs were. |
238 | 00:12:28,266 | 00:12:32,366 | In nature, Physarum feeds on a diverse diet | In nature, Physarum feeds on a diverse diet |
239 | 00:12:32,400 | 00:12:36,066 | of micro-organisms from the forest floor. | of micro-organisms from the forest floor. |
240 | 00:12:37,566 | 00:12:39,900 | But in laboratories around the world, | But in laboratories around the world, |
241 | 00:12:39,933 | 00:12:44,133 | they're fed a single food-- oats. | they're fed a single food-- oats. |
242 | 00:12:44,166 | 00:12:47,700 | Slime molds inexplicably love rolled oats. | Slime molds inexplicably love rolled oats. |
243 | 00:12:47,733 | 00:12:49,300 | And that's good for them, but for this experiment, | And that's good for them, but for this experiment, |
244 | 00:12:49,333 | 00:12:51,066 | we had to design different diets. | we had to design different diets. |
245 | 00:12:54,466 | 00:12:57,366 | So we had to invent special recipes for Blob. | So we had to invent special recipes for Blob. |
246 | 00:12:59,266 | 00:13:00,800 | Making their Australian laboratory | Making their Australian laboratory |
247 | 00:13:00,833 | 00:13:03,833 | seem more like a British bake-off. | seem more like a British bake-off. |
248 | 00:13:06,933 | 00:13:08,600 | We had to do a lot of different mixing and cooking | We had to do a lot of different mixing and cooking |
249 | 00:13:08,633 | 00:13:09,866 | to figure out | to figure out |
250 | 00:13:09,900 | 00:13:11,866 | the ratio of proteins to carbohydrates | the ratio of proteins to carbohydrates |
251 | 00:13:11,900 | 00:13:13,066 | that the slime mold did the best on. | that the slime mold did the best on. |
252 | 00:13:13,100 | 00:13:15,133 | So, the ones that maximize their growth. | So, the ones that maximize their growth. |
253 | 00:13:16,866 | 00:13:19,766 | We created these sort of crèmes brûlées. | We created these sort of crèmes brûlées. |
254 | 00:13:19,800 | 00:13:24,833 | We called them custards. | We called them custards. |
255 | 00:13:24,866 | 00:13:27,133 | 35 different recipes. | 35 different recipes. |
256 | 00:13:27,166 | 00:13:30,700 | Each had a particular ratio of protein to sugar. | Each had a particular ratio of protein to sugar. |
257 | 00:13:30,733 | 00:13:35,766 | To determine which of these recipes was best, | To determine which of these recipes was best, |
258 | 00:13:35,800 | 00:13:38,700 | the judge in this test kitchen | the judge in this test kitchen |
259 | 00:13:38,733 | 00:13:40,766 | was Physarum. | was Physarum. |
260 | 00:13:42,800 | 00:13:47,200 | They placed Physarum on each of these 35 mixtures of protein | They placed Physarum on each of these 35 mixtures of protein |
261 | 00:13:47,233 | 00:13:50,866 | and carbohydrates-- basically, sugar-- | and carbohydrates-- basically, sugar-- |
262 | 00:13:50,900 | 00:13:54,433 | and found that Physarum needed both to survive. | and found that Physarum needed both to survive. |
263 | 00:13:54,466 | 00:14:00,466 | But too much protein, and Physarum would split apart. | But too much protein, and Physarum would split apart. |
264 | 00:14:00,500 | 00:14:03,800 | Too much sugar proved fatal. | Too much sugar proved fatal. |
265 | 00:14:03,833 | 00:14:05,633 | With just the right balance, | With just the right balance, |
266 | 00:14:05,666 | 00:14:09,133 | Physarum grew and remained healthiest. | Physarum grew and remained healthiest. |
267 | 00:14:09,166 | 00:14:13,900 | Audrey and Tanya had found Physarum's optimal diet. | Audrey and Tanya had found Physarum's optimal diet. |
268 | 00:14:15,666 | 00:14:19,066 | Now they were ready to test if Physarum could find it | Now they were ready to test if Physarum could find it |
269 | 00:14:19,100 | 00:14:22,733 | when presented with multiple options. | when presented with multiple options. |
270 | 00:14:22,766 | 00:14:24,966 | We offered Physarum a buffet. | We offered Physarum a buffet. |
271 | 00:14:25,000 | 00:14:27,233 | In this buffet, | In this buffet, |
272 | 00:14:27,266 | 00:14:30,100 | Physarum had a variety of custards to choose from, | Physarum had a variety of custards to choose from, |
273 | 00:14:30,133 | 00:14:33,133 | each with a different ratio of protein to sugar. | each with a different ratio of protein to sugar. |
274 | 00:14:33,166 | 00:14:36,733 | Could Physarum find one with the proper balance | Could Physarum find one with the proper balance |
275 | 00:14:36,766 | 00:14:40,733 | among these seven different ratios of nutrients? | among these seven different ratios of nutrients? |
276 | 00:14:40,766 | 00:14:46,266 | There was one slight problem. | There was one slight problem. |
277 | 00:14:46,300 | 00:14:50,966 | Physarum is slow, it is extremely slow. | Physarum is slow, it is extremely slow. |
278 | 00:14:53,300 | 00:14:55,433 | Way slower than a slug. | Way slower than a slug. |
279 | 00:14:55,466 | 00:15:01,433 | Not even half the speed of the minute hand on this watch. | Not even half the speed of the minute hand on this watch. |
280 | 00:15:01,466 | 00:15:07,300 | Physarum... is... slow. | Physarum... is... slow. |
281 | 00:15:07,333 | 00:15:12,000 | At least 24 hours for a single experiment. | At least 24 hours for a single experiment. |
282 | 00:15:15,566 | 00:15:20,366 | So to observe and record their slime mold experiments, | So to observe and record their slime mold experiments, |
283 | 00:15:20,400 | 00:15:24,033 | Tanya and Audrey relied on time-lapse photography. | Tanya and Audrey relied on time-lapse photography. |
284 | 00:15:24,066 | 00:15:28,700 | In images taken over periods of hours and even days, | In images taken over periods of hours and even days, |
285 | 00:15:28,733 | 00:15:31,100 | Physarum comes to life, | Physarum comes to life, |
286 | 00:15:31,133 | 00:15:34,400 | unfurling its tendril-like extensions | unfurling its tendril-like extensions |
287 | 00:15:34,433 | 00:15:37,100 | called pseudopods. | called pseudopods. |
288 | 00:15:38,900 | 00:15:42,366 | It's detected that food cue, and it's extended a pseudopod out. | It's detected that food cue, and it's extended a pseudopod out. |
289 | 00:15:44,400 | 00:15:46,366 | I get the impression they don't super-like | I get the impression they don't super-like |
290 | 00:15:46,400 | 00:15:48,066 | that blue food source. | that blue food source. |
291 | 00:15:48,100 | 00:15:51,133 | In fact, it contains levels of sugar | In fact, it contains levels of sugar |
292 | 00:15:51,166 | 00:15:53,166 | that would be lethal to Physarum. | that would be lethal to Physarum. |
293 | 00:15:53,200 | 00:15:56,766 | And so, it heads elsewhere. | And so, it heads elsewhere. |
294 | 00:15:56,800 | 00:15:58,166 | You can see it's sort of dividing | You can see it's sort of dividing |
295 | 00:15:58,200 | 00:15:59,500 | into a bunch of pseudopods... | into a bunch of pseudopods... |
296 | 00:16:03,533 | 00:16:06,166 | It's contacted that one in the middle. | It's contacted that one in the middle. |
297 | 00:16:06,200 | 00:16:08,700 | I'm not sure if it's actually chosen that one. | I'm not sure if it's actually chosen that one. |
298 | 00:16:08,733 | 00:16:12,000 | It's the best ratio it's sensed so far. | It's the best ratio it's sensed so far. |
299 | 00:16:12,033 | 00:16:16,300 | It begins eating, and continues searching. | It begins eating, and continues searching. |
300 | 00:16:16,333 | 00:16:17,800 | Slime mold can, and so it does. | Slime mold can, and so it does. |
301 | 00:16:17,833 | 00:16:20,166 | It'll first engulf the food | It'll first engulf the food |
302 | 00:16:20,200 | 00:16:22,900 | and then send out pseudopods to start looking, | and then send out pseudopods to start looking, |
303 | 00:16:22,933 | 00:16:25,266 | because you never know what's around the corner. | because you never know what's around the corner. |
304 | 00:16:25,300 | 00:16:29,233 | The slime mold soon abandons that source. | The slime mold soon abandons that source. |
305 | 00:16:29,266 | 00:16:30,633 | It's sort of shifted. | It's sort of shifted. |
306 | 00:16:30,666 | 00:16:34,300 | The slime mold clearly likes the left side better. | The slime mold clearly likes the left side better. |
307 | 00:16:34,333 | 00:16:38,033 | On this side is the best nutritional balance. | On this side is the best nutritional balance. |
308 | 00:16:38,066 | 00:16:40,600 | Given seven options, | Given seven options, |
309 | 00:16:40,633 | 00:16:47,466 | Physarum found the optimal ratio of protein to sugar. | Physarum found the optimal ratio of protein to sugar. |
310 | 00:16:47,500 | 00:16:51,266 | Blob headed towards the custard that would maximize growth. | Blob headed towards the custard that would maximize growth. |
311 | 00:16:51,300 | 00:16:53,700 | It will always try to optimize | It will always try to optimize |
312 | 00:16:53,733 | 00:16:56,633 | both protein and sugar. | both protein and sugar. |
313 | 00:16:58,666 | 00:17:01,366 | But had Physarum made a decision? | But had Physarum made a decision? |
314 | 00:17:01,400 | 00:17:04,066 | Was this truly a choice? | Was this truly a choice? |
315 | 00:17:04,100 | 00:17:05,600 | We have to be very careful | We have to be very careful |
316 | 00:17:05,633 | 00:17:07,266 | using words like "choice" or "decide." | using words like "choice" or "decide." |
317 | 00:17:07,300 | 00:17:09,200 | We're not saying that they have feelings | We're not saying that they have feelings |
318 | 00:17:09,233 | 00:17:12,633 | or that they're thinking or doing those decisions | or that they're thinking or doing those decisions |
319 | 00:17:12,666 | 00:17:14,133 | the same way that we do. | the same way that we do. |
320 | 00:17:14,166 | 00:17:16,133 | What we are saying is that slime molds are able to make choices | What we are saying is that slime molds are able to make choices |
321 | 00:17:16,166 | 00:17:17,900 | because, if you give them an option | because, if you give them an option |
322 | 00:17:17,933 | 00:17:19,366 | between two or more items, | between two or more items, |
323 | 00:17:19,400 | 00:17:22,800 | they will consistently make certain choices over others. | they will consistently make certain choices over others. |
324 | 00:17:22,833 | 00:17:27,433 | Choice or not, they had conclusively shown | Choice or not, they had conclusively shown |
325 | 00:17:27,466 | 00:17:30,533 | that Physarum had effectively taken in information | that Physarum had effectively taken in information |
326 | 00:17:30,566 | 00:17:32,266 | about its environment | about its environment |
327 | 00:17:32,300 | 00:17:35,366 | and turned that into action-- | and turned that into action-- |
328 | 00:17:35,400 | 00:17:41,066 | action that in itself is mystifying. | action that in itself is mystifying. |
329 | 00:17:41,100 | 00:17:46,166 | It begs the question, "How does a cell move | It begs the question, "How does a cell move |
330 | 00:17:46,200 | 00:17:48,100 | "if it has no appendages, | "if it has no appendages, |
331 | 00:17:48,133 | 00:17:49,900 | no legs?" | no legs?" |
332 | 00:17:49,933 | 00:17:51,766 | It's a system quite unique in nature. | It's a system quite unique in nature. |
333 | 00:17:51,800 | 00:17:54,033 | If you look at it closely, you'll see | If you look at it closely, you'll see |
334 | 00:17:54,066 | 00:17:58,233 | that it is crisscrossed with a network of veins. | that it is crisscrossed with a network of veins. |
335 | 00:17:58,266 | 00:18:00,533 | The veins of slime molds are constantly pulsing, | The veins of slime molds are constantly pulsing, |
336 | 00:18:00,566 | 00:18:02,433 | and that drives it forwards. | and that drives it forwards. |
337 | 00:18:11,366 | 00:18:12,633 | In Bremen, Germany, | In Bremen, Germany, |
338 | 00:18:12,666 | 00:18:15,633 | Hans-Guünther Doöbereiner and his team | Hans-Guünther Doöbereiner and his team |
339 | 00:18:15,666 | 00:18:20,533 | study the mechanics of Physarum's movement. | study the mechanics of Physarum's movement. |
340 | 00:18:20,566 | 00:18:24,100 | There is a stream of what we call protoplasm. | There is a stream of what we call protoplasm. |
341 | 00:18:24,133 | 00:18:29,433 | You can see here that there's a flow within these veins. | You can see here that there's a flow within these veins. |
342 | 00:18:29,466 | 00:18:32,566 | That flow is produced by proteins | That flow is produced by proteins |
343 | 00:18:32,600 | 00:18:34,500 | that wrap around the veins | that wrap around the veins |
344 | 00:18:34,533 | 00:18:37,433 | and rhythmically squeeze and relax, | and rhythmically squeeze and relax, |
345 | 00:18:37,466 | 00:18:40,766 | propelling the protoplasm within. | propelling the protoplasm within. |
346 | 00:18:40,800 | 00:18:43,433 | And that liquid is driven through the veins | And that liquid is driven through the veins |
347 | 00:18:43,466 | 00:18:47,333 | to the growth front of Physarum. | to the growth front of Physarum. |
348 | 00:18:47,366 | 00:18:50,900 | The growth front is Physarum's forward-moving branches, | The growth front is Physarum's forward-moving branches, |
349 | 00:18:50,933 | 00:18:53,666 | fed by these veins. | fed by these veins. |
350 | 00:18:53,700 | 00:18:57,666 | But how does Physarum coordinate this movement | But how does Physarum coordinate this movement |
351 | 00:18:57,700 | 00:19:02,833 | in order to navigate towards its next meal? | in order to navigate towards its next meal? |
352 | 00:19:02,866 | 00:19:04,133 | In our bodies, we have a brain that tells | In our bodies, we have a brain that tells |
353 | 00:19:04,166 | 00:19:05,433 | the rest of our body what to do. | the rest of our body what to do. |
354 | 00:19:05,466 | 00:19:07,300 | That's not the case in the slime mold at all. | That's not the case in the slime mold at all. |
355 | 00:19:07,333 | 00:19:08,466 | It's totally decentralized. | It's totally decentralized. |
356 | 00:19:08,500 | 00:19:10,633 | And so every bit of slime mold | And so every bit of slime mold |
357 | 00:19:10,666 | 00:19:13,300 | is essentially deciding for itself. | is essentially deciding for itself. |
358 | 00:19:13,333 | 00:19:16,966 | What "every bit" would be in a single-celled organism | What "every bit" would be in a single-celled organism |
359 | 00:19:17,000 | 00:19:22,566 | is confusing, even for the people that study Physarum. | is confusing, even for the people that study Physarum. |
360 | 00:19:22,600 | 00:19:25,600 | So to better understand what the "parts" are | So to better understand what the "parts" are |
361 | 00:19:25,633 | 00:19:29,066 | that make up this single cell, | that make up this single cell, |
362 | 00:19:29,100 | 00:19:32,500 | Hans-Guünther's team shredded Physarum | Hans-Guünther's team shredded Physarum |
363 | 00:19:32,533 | 00:19:36,466 | into thousands of tiny fragments. | into thousands of tiny fragments. |
364 | 00:19:38,666 | 00:19:42,700 | The veins, the pseudopods-- | The veins, the pseudopods-- |
365 | 00:19:42,733 | 00:19:45,666 | all of the familiar structures-- are gone. | all of the familiar structures-- are gone. |
366 | 00:19:45,700 | 00:19:51,300 | What remains are random bits of protoplasm, | What remains are random bits of protoplasm, |
367 | 00:19:51,333 | 00:19:55,366 | the goo that Physarum is made of. | the goo that Physarum is made of. |
368 | 00:19:55,400 | 00:19:57,800 | For Physarum, | For Physarum, |
369 | 00:19:57,833 | 00:20:02,300 | this is a minor setback. | this is a minor setback. |
370 | 00:20:02,333 | 00:20:04,866 | Viewed under a microscope, | Viewed under a microscope, |
371 | 00:20:04,900 | 00:20:09,833 | these bits are already pulsing. | these bits are already pulsing. |
372 | 00:20:11,366 | 00:20:17,833 | And as they watch, Physarum begins forming back together. | And as they watch, Physarum begins forming back together. |
373 | 00:20:17,866 | 00:20:21,566 | These separate, small objects join up | These separate, small objects join up |
374 | 00:20:21,600 | 00:20:24,800 | to form an interconnected network. | to form an interconnected network. |
375 | 00:20:24,833 | 00:20:27,666 | You can see more and more of them coming together. | You can see more and more of them coming together. |
376 | 00:20:27,700 | 00:20:30,933 | Physarum is reassembling itself | Physarum is reassembling itself |
377 | 00:20:30,966 | 00:20:33,333 | into its familiar network of veins, | into its familiar network of veins, |
378 | 00:20:33,366 | 00:20:38,766 | fanning out in every direction. | fanning out in every direction. |
379 | 00:20:38,800 | 00:20:43,066 | Hans-Guünther has found that Physarum's parts | Hans-Guünther has found that Physarum's parts |
380 | 00:20:43,100 | 00:20:46,333 | are interchangeable. | are interchangeable. |
381 | 00:20:49,400 | 00:20:51,300 | A dog is always a dog. | A dog is always a dog. |
382 | 00:20:51,333 | 00:20:53,633 | A bacterium is always a bacterium. | A bacterium is always a bacterium. |
383 | 00:20:53,666 | 00:20:56,800 | But Physarum is more like... | But Physarum is more like... |
384 | 00:20:56,833 | 00:21:01,500 | A Transformer. | A Transformer. |
385 | 00:21:01,533 | 00:21:04,100 | It's a natural, biological Transformer. | It's a natural, biological Transformer. |
386 | 00:21:07,366 | 00:21:10,200 | Any part of the slime mold can pretty much recreate | Any part of the slime mold can pretty much recreate |
387 | 00:21:10,233 | 00:21:12,366 | any other part of the slime mold. | any other part of the slime mold. |
388 | 00:21:12,400 | 00:21:13,566 | And that's because, if you think of a slime mold | And that's because, if you think of a slime mold |
389 | 00:21:13,600 | 00:21:15,066 | as being almost like a soup, | as being almost like a soup, |
390 | 00:21:15,100 | 00:21:17,533 | there is all these different components of the cell | there is all these different components of the cell |
391 | 00:21:17,566 | 00:21:18,833 | that do different jobs. | that do different jobs. |
392 | 00:21:18,866 | 00:21:22,066 | They can organize and pack tightly to form a vein. | They can organize and pack tightly to form a vein. |
393 | 00:21:22,100 | 00:21:23,466 | They can be less packed together | They can be less packed together |
394 | 00:21:23,500 | 00:21:27,233 | to form this free-flowing cytoplasm. | to form this free-flowing cytoplasm. |
395 | 00:21:27,266 | 00:21:29,566 | It will just reorganize itself and become a slime mold again | It will just reorganize itself and become a slime mold again |
396 | 00:21:29,600 | 00:21:30,700 | with all the normal slime mold bits. | with all the normal slime mold bits. |
397 | 00:21:30,733 | 00:21:32,600 | So it can totally reorganize itself. | So it can totally reorganize itself. |
398 | 00:21:32,633 | 00:21:36,233 | These individually pulsing bits | These individually pulsing bits |
399 | 00:21:36,266 | 00:21:37,600 | are the key to its movement. | are the key to its movement. |
400 | 00:21:37,633 | 00:21:41,166 | If certain areas begin beating faster than others, | If certain areas begin beating faster than others, |
401 | 00:21:41,200 | 00:21:45,200 | Physarum will move in that direction. | Physarum will move in that direction. |
402 | 00:21:45,233 | 00:21:47,733 | Cytoplasm will flow in the area where there's the most pulsing. | Cytoplasm will flow in the area where there's the most pulsing. |
403 | 00:21:47,766 | 00:21:51,333 | And one thing that controls these pulses | And one thing that controls these pulses |
404 | 00:21:51,366 | 00:21:53,533 | is Physarum's receptors. | is Physarum's receptors. |
405 | 00:21:53,566 | 00:21:56,166 | Once that receptor detects the food, that triggers | Once that receptor detects the food, that triggers |
406 | 00:21:56,200 | 00:21:58,900 | that part of the slime mold that's closest to the food | that part of the slime mold that's closest to the food |
407 | 00:21:58,933 | 00:22:00,033 | to start pulsing faster. | to start pulsing faster. |
408 | 00:22:00,066 | 00:22:01,033 | And so the slime mold starts to flow | And so the slime mold starts to flow |
409 | 00:22:01,066 | 00:22:03,200 | in the direction of the food. | in the direction of the food. |
410 | 00:22:13,833 | 00:22:15,133 | Hans-Guünther has been mapping | Hans-Guünther has been mapping |
411 | 00:22:15,166 | 00:22:18,800 | Physarum's patterns of structure and movement, | Physarum's patterns of structure and movement, |
412 | 00:22:18,833 | 00:22:21,666 | and says that, in many ways, | and says that, in many ways, |
413 | 00:22:21,700 | 00:22:23,933 | it resembles the flow of traffic | it resembles the flow of traffic |
414 | 00:22:23,966 | 00:22:26,433 | on human transportation networks. | on human transportation networks. |
415 | 00:22:30,866 | 00:22:35,000 | In Japan, members of Toshiyuki's team have been studying this. | In Japan, members of Toshiyuki's team have been studying this. |
416 | 00:22:35,033 | 00:22:37,800 | Physarum is particularly interesting | Physarum is particularly interesting |
417 | 00:22:37,833 | 00:22:41,433 | because it is, basically, an adaptive transportation network. | because it is, basically, an adaptive transportation network. |
418 | 00:22:50,100 | 00:22:51,900 | In this experiment, | In this experiment, |
419 | 00:22:51,933 | 00:22:54,233 | Physarum is meticulously placed | Physarum is meticulously placed |
420 | 00:22:54,266 | 00:22:56,800 | over the entire surface of the labyrinth. | over the entire surface of the labyrinth. |
421 | 00:23:00,500 | 00:23:03,100 | At the entrance and exit are oat flakes, | At the entrance and exit are oat flakes, |
422 | 00:23:03,133 | 00:23:05,666 | to see how Physarum will handle the presence | to see how Physarum will handle the presence |
423 | 00:23:05,700 | 00:23:08,433 | of two food sources. | of two food sources. |
424 | 00:23:12,433 | 00:23:17,266 | One by one, it eliminates unproductive pathways | One by one, it eliminates unproductive pathways |
425 | 00:23:17,300 | 00:23:20,600 | until there's just one vein left, | until there's just one vein left, |
426 | 00:23:20,633 | 00:23:25,833 | linking the two food sources by the shortest path. | linking the two food sources by the shortest path. |
427 | 00:23:25,866 | 00:23:29,066 | By reconfiguring itself in this way, | By reconfiguring itself in this way, |
428 | 00:23:29,100 | 00:23:33,500 | Physarum has optimized its intake of nutrients. | Physarum has optimized its intake of nutrients. |
429 | 00:23:37,000 | 00:23:40,233 | But two points are easy. | But two points are easy. |
430 | 00:23:45,866 | 00:23:48,966 | Toshiyuki began to test Physarum's ability | Toshiyuki began to test Physarum's ability |
431 | 00:23:49,000 | 00:23:54,366 | to optimize its form over many more points, | to optimize its form over many more points, |
432 | 00:23:54,400 | 00:23:58,300 | eventually increasing the number to 37. | eventually increasing the number to 37. |
433 | 00:23:58,333 | 00:24:03,766 | The number of possible ways to connect 37 points | The number of possible ways to connect 37 points |
434 | 00:24:03,800 | 00:24:06,333 | is somewhere in the neighborhood of an eight | is somewhere in the neighborhood of an eight |
435 | 00:24:06,366 | 00:24:10,800 | followed by 54 zeros. | followed by 54 zeros. |
436 | 00:24:10,833 | 00:24:13,700 | Can Physarum find the optimal way? | Can Physarum find the optimal way? |
437 | 00:24:13,733 | 00:24:16,900 | And to make it interesting, | And to make it interesting, |
438 | 00:24:16,933 | 00:24:21,366 | Toshiyuki and his team gave Physarum a real-world problem, | Toshiyuki and his team gave Physarum a real-world problem, |
439 | 00:24:21,400 | 00:24:25,733 | one that human engineers had already solved: | one that human engineers had already solved: |
440 | 00:24:25,766 | 00:24:28,966 | find the most efficient transportation network | find the most efficient transportation network |
441 | 00:24:29,000 | 00:24:31,066 | in the greater Tokyo area. | in the greater Tokyo area. |
442 | 00:24:31,100 | 00:24:36,166 | Using oat flakes to represent principal towns and cities, | Using oat flakes to represent principal towns and cities, |
443 | 00:24:36,200 | 00:24:39,600 | Physarum is placed where Tokyo would be. | Physarum is placed where Tokyo would be. |
444 | 00:24:40,966 | 00:24:46,433 | Can Physarum create an efficient network? | Can Physarum create an efficient network? |
445 | 00:24:50,833 | 00:24:54,933 | Physarum explores its environment | Physarum explores its environment |
446 | 00:24:54,966 | 00:24:57,866 | and, as it discovers the oat flakes, | and, as it discovers the oat flakes, |
447 | 00:24:57,900 | 00:25:01,466 | reconfigures its network of veins, | reconfigures its network of veins, |
448 | 00:25:01,500 | 00:25:05,933 | reinforcing the links between the food sources | reinforcing the links between the food sources |
449 | 00:25:05,966 | 00:25:09,800 | and making the others disappear. | and making the others disappear. |
450 | 00:25:09,833 | 00:25:11,900 | What we're getting is something that looks an awful lot | What we're getting is something that looks an awful lot |
451 | 00:25:11,933 | 00:25:14,700 | like the actual Tokyo metro system, | like the actual Tokyo metro system, |
452 | 00:25:14,733 | 00:25:18,333 | far more like it than we would expect by chance. | far more like it than we would expect by chance. |
453 | 00:25:18,366 | 00:25:23,466 | Physarum has created an optimal network. | Physarum has created an optimal network. |
454 | 00:25:27,500 | 00:25:31,600 | Something it's done successfully for millions of years, | Something it's done successfully for millions of years, |
455 | 00:25:31,633 | 00:25:34,700 | long before humans came along. | long before humans came along. |
456 | 00:25:45,633 | 00:25:47,500 | We noticed almost always, | We noticed almost always, |
457 | 00:25:47,533 | 00:25:49,000 | when they were searching a plate, | when they were searching a plate, |
458 | 00:25:49,033 | 00:25:51,166 | they would never go back over where they had been before, | they would never go back over where they had been before, |
459 | 00:25:51,200 | 00:25:53,733 | and that was unusual. | and that was unusual. |
460 | 00:25:53,766 | 00:25:57,666 | Unusual because that would seem to imply that Physarum | Unusual because that would seem to imply that Physarum |
461 | 00:25:57,700 | 00:26:00,466 | would have to remember. | would have to remember. |
462 | 00:26:00,500 | 00:26:03,300 | We assumed that it didn't have any classic memory, | We assumed that it didn't have any classic memory, |
463 | 00:26:03,333 | 00:26:05,166 | that it wasn't remembering where it had been, | that it wasn't remembering where it had been, |
464 | 00:26:05,200 | 00:26:07,200 | which left the question, "Well, then, how is it doing it?" | which left the question, "Well, then, how is it doing it?" |
465 | 00:26:11,566 | 00:26:14,266 | The answer came from Physarum itself. | The answer came from Physarum itself. |
466 | 00:26:14,300 | 00:26:20,633 | It had been leaving a trail of clues written in slime. | It had been leaving a trail of clues written in slime. |
467 | 00:26:20,666 | 00:26:23,166 | This grey stuff, that's the slime trail, | This grey stuff, that's the slime trail, |
468 | 00:26:23,200 | 00:26:27,033 | which is kind of like the slime trails that we see behind slugs. | which is kind of like the slime trails that we see behind slugs. |
469 | 00:26:28,933 | 00:26:32,266 | So you have to ask, "Does Blob use its trail | So you have to ask, "Does Blob use its trail |
470 | 00:26:32,300 | 00:26:34,133 | to memorize its environment?" | to memorize its environment?" |
471 | 00:26:36,300 | 00:26:38,433 | Ants emit trails of pheromones | Ants emit trails of pheromones |
472 | 00:26:38,466 | 00:26:41,633 | to mark their paths to where they've found food. | to mark their paths to where they've found food. |
473 | 00:26:41,666 | 00:26:45,166 | Then other members of the colony use that trail | Then other members of the colony use that trail |
474 | 00:26:45,200 | 00:26:47,000 | as an "external memory" | as an "external memory" |
475 | 00:26:47,033 | 00:26:51,233 | to navigate to the food and back. | to navigate to the food and back. |
476 | 00:26:51,266 | 00:26:52,933 | Because we worked with ants, we were kind of familiar | Because we worked with ants, we were kind of familiar |
477 | 00:26:52,966 | 00:26:55,300 | with this idea of having an external form of memory; | with this idea of having an external form of memory; |
478 | 00:26:55,333 | 00:26:59,133 | it's not encoded in a brain, it's marked on the environment. | it's not encoded in a brain, it's marked on the environment. |
479 | 00:26:59,166 | 00:27:05,333 | In Physarum's case, its trail is a signal to keep away. | In Physarum's case, its trail is a signal to keep away. |
480 | 00:27:05,366 | 00:27:08,466 | That slime is, in fact, a repellent. | That slime is, in fact, a repellent. |
481 | 00:27:08,500 | 00:27:11,100 | Slime mold never wants to go back to where it has left | Slime mold never wants to go back to where it has left |
482 | 00:27:11,133 | 00:27:12,766 | its own slime. | its own slime. |
483 | 00:27:14,433 | 00:27:18,933 | So we set up an experiment to see if this slime was being used | So we set up an experiment to see if this slime was being used |
484 | 00:27:18,966 | 00:27:21,300 | as a kind of external memory: | as a kind of external memory: |
485 | 00:27:21,333 | 00:27:24,433 | the U-Shaped Trap. | the U-Shaped Trap. |
486 | 00:27:26,300 | 00:27:29,033 | The U-Shaped Trap was an experimental challenge | The U-Shaped Trap was an experimental challenge |
487 | 00:27:29,066 | 00:27:32,966 | used in early machine-learning research | used in early machine-learning research |
488 | 00:27:33,000 | 00:27:35,500 | to test things like a robot's navigational memory. | to test things like a robot's navigational memory. |
489 | 00:27:35,533 | 00:27:39,500 | A robot is given a goal, which it can sense, | A robot is given a goal, which it can sense, |
490 | 00:27:39,533 | 00:27:43,200 | and a U-shaped barrier, which it can't. | and a U-shaped barrier, which it can't. |
491 | 00:27:43,233 | 00:27:46,166 | I mean, if you don't have a system of memory | I mean, if you don't have a system of memory |
492 | 00:27:46,200 | 00:27:47,300 | or some other mechanism, | or some other mechanism, |
493 | 00:27:47,333 | 00:27:49,133 | you just keep running into the wall. | you just keep running into the wall. |
494 | 00:27:49,166 | 00:27:52,866 | And that's not a good thing. | And that's not a good thing. |
495 | 00:27:52,900 | 00:27:55,733 | Robots without a system of memory would often | Robots without a system of memory would often |
496 | 00:27:55,766 | 00:27:58,633 | remain trapped in this loop. | remain trapped in this loop. |
497 | 00:27:58,666 | 00:28:01,733 | In this experiment, | In this experiment, |
498 | 00:28:01,766 | 00:28:04,466 | Physarum's goal was food. | Physarum's goal was food. |
499 | 00:28:07,133 | 00:28:09,800 | Blob can spot the food source at a distance | Blob can spot the food source at a distance |
500 | 00:28:09,833 | 00:28:13,000 | because it is diffusing into the environment. | because it is diffusing into the environment. |
501 | 00:28:13,033 | 00:28:15,400 | If the slime mold | If the slime mold |
502 | 00:28:15,433 | 00:28:18,600 | just follows that smell cue, it's gonna hit a wall. | just follows that smell cue, it's gonna hit a wall. |
503 | 00:28:18,633 | 00:28:20,833 | And without some sort of memory or some other system, | And without some sort of memory or some other system, |
504 | 00:28:20,866 | 00:28:22,300 | we expect it | we expect it |
505 | 00:28:22,333 | 00:28:23,966 | to just keep smashing itself against that wall, | to just keep smashing itself against that wall, |
506 | 00:28:24,000 | 00:28:26,733 | and it won't escape. | and it won't escape. |
507 | 00:28:26,766 | 00:28:29,366 | So what will Blob do? | So what will Blob do? |
508 | 00:28:29,400 | 00:28:31,533 | So the slime mold would go down, hit the wall, | So the slime mold would go down, hit the wall, |
509 | 00:28:31,566 | 00:28:32,700 | but when it goes to do it the second time, | but when it goes to do it the second time, |
510 | 00:28:32,733 | 00:28:34,066 | it detects that it's already been there | it detects that it's already been there |
511 | 00:28:34,100 | 00:28:36,366 | and sort of takes a step back, | and sort of takes a step back, |
512 | 00:28:36,400 | 00:28:37,966 | and you can almost see it tracing the wall, | and you can almost see it tracing the wall, |
513 | 00:28:38,000 | 00:28:41,100 | and then coming up the side and zipping down | and then coming up the side and zipping down |
514 | 00:28:41,133 | 00:28:44,400 | and finding the food source really quickly. | and finding the food source really quickly. |
515 | 00:28:48,200 | 00:28:50,333 | So once we'd shown that Blob was able to do that, | So once we'd shown that Blob was able to do that, |
516 | 00:28:50,366 | 00:28:53,166 | we performed the experiment a second time, | we performed the experiment a second time, |
517 | 00:28:53,200 | 00:28:55,666 | but this time, | but this time, |
518 | 00:28:55,700 | 00:28:59,333 | we covered the environment with slime. | we covered the environment with slime. |
519 | 00:28:59,366 | 00:29:03,900 | We made Blob think it had already explored the area. | We made Blob think it had already explored the area. |
520 | 00:29:03,933 | 00:29:06,100 | The slime mold can still detect there was a food cue | The slime mold can still detect there was a food cue |
521 | 00:29:06,133 | 00:29:08,066 | and it still moved towards it, | and it still moved towards it, |
522 | 00:29:08,100 | 00:29:09,733 | but it was unable to tell the difference | but it was unable to tell the difference |
523 | 00:29:09,766 | 00:29:13,166 | between where it had been and where it hadn't been yet. | between where it had been and where it hadn't been yet. |
524 | 00:29:13,200 | 00:29:15,500 | And so because of that when it got to the bottom of the U, | And so because of that when it got to the bottom of the U, |
525 | 00:29:15,533 | 00:29:18,533 | it just gets stuck and can't quite figure out how to get out. | it just gets stuck and can't quite figure out how to get out. |
526 | 00:29:18,566 | 00:29:24,066 | It was no longer able to find the food source. | It was no longer able to find the food source. |
527 | 00:29:24,100 | 00:29:27,466 | And so Tanya and Audrey concluded | And so Tanya and Audrey concluded |
528 | 00:29:27,500 | 00:29:29,966 | that Physarum's trail does, in fact, | that Physarum's trail does, in fact, |
529 | 00:29:30,000 | 00:29:33,766 | serve as an external memory. | serve as an external memory. |
530 | 00:29:39,733 | 00:29:41,966 | For slime mold researchers, | For slime mold researchers, |
531 | 00:29:42,000 | 00:29:44,433 | the mounting evidence of these behaviors | the mounting evidence of these behaviors |
532 | 00:29:44,466 | 00:29:45,833 | led them to pose a question | led them to pose a question |
533 | 00:29:45,866 | 00:29:50,600 | that makes many scientists nervous. | that makes many scientists nervous. |
534 | 00:29:50,633 | 00:29:53,266 | When you see what Physarum polycephalum can do-- | When you see what Physarum polycephalum can do-- |
535 | 00:29:53,300 | 00:29:56,533 | it can get through a labyrinth, create optimized networks, | it can get through a labyrinth, create optimized networks, |
536 | 00:29:56,566 | 00:29:59,233 | escape from a trap, balance its own diet-- | escape from a trap, balance its own diet-- |
537 | 00:29:59,266 | 00:30:04,066 | "Does this organism possess intelligence?" | "Does this organism possess intelligence?" |
538 | 00:30:04,100 | 00:30:05,633 | So that word is tricky. | So that word is tricky. |
539 | 00:30:05,666 | 00:30:08,033 | Defining intelligence is not an easy thing, | Defining intelligence is not an easy thing, |
540 | 00:30:08,066 | 00:30:10,500 | and certainly many people have different definitions for it. | and certainly many people have different definitions for it. |
541 | 00:30:10,533 | 00:30:13,466 | The question of intelligence | The question of intelligence |
542 | 00:30:13,500 | 00:30:16,300 | depends a lot on how we define intelligence. | depends a lot on how we define intelligence. |
543 | 00:30:16,333 | 00:30:19,166 | Due to the fact that it is so tightly linked | Due to the fact that it is so tightly linked |
544 | 00:30:19,200 | 00:30:20,333 | to the human beings, | to the human beings, |
545 | 00:30:20,366 | 00:30:21,666 | it is very difficult now | it is very difficult now |
546 | 00:30:21,700 | 00:30:24,066 | to speak about intelligence in other organisms. | to speak about intelligence in other organisms. |
547 | 00:30:24,100 | 00:30:29,900 | A commonly accepted idea is that the only living organisms | A commonly accepted idea is that the only living organisms |
548 | 00:30:29,933 | 00:30:31,566 | who display intelligence | who display intelligence |
549 | 00:30:31,600 | 00:30:33,600 | are those with a nervous system and brain. | are those with a nervous system and brain. |
550 | 00:30:33,633 | 00:30:38,000 | I say with certainty that I believe this idea is wrong. | I say with certainty that I believe this idea is wrong. |
551 | 00:30:38,033 | 00:30:42,633 | In my opinion, I call this intelligent behavior. | In my opinion, I call this intelligent behavior. |
552 | 00:30:42,666 | 00:30:46,966 | For centuries, most scientists believed | For centuries, most scientists believed |
553 | 00:30:47,000 | 00:30:48,333 | the trait of intelligence-- | the trait of intelligence-- |
554 | 00:30:48,366 | 00:30:50,966 | the ability to reason and think-- | the ability to reason and think-- |
555 | 00:30:51,000 | 00:30:53,800 | was unique to Homo sapiens. | was unique to Homo sapiens. |
556 | 00:30:55,933 | 00:30:59,633 | It wasn't until the mid-20th century that researchers started | It wasn't until the mid-20th century that researchers started |
557 | 00:30:59,666 | 00:31:03,200 | to document cognitive abilities in our primate cousins, | to document cognitive abilities in our primate cousins, |
558 | 00:31:03,233 | 00:31:06,933 | as well as other animals, farther and farther from us | as well as other animals, farther and farther from us |
559 | 00:31:06,966 | 00:31:09,366 | on the evolutionary tree. | on the evolutionary tree. |
560 | 00:31:09,400 | 00:31:15,866 | Chimpanzees and even crows making and using tools. | Chimpanzees and even crows making and using tools. |
561 | 00:31:15,900 | 00:31:20,533 | Whales and dolphins using sound to communicate complex ideas. | Whales and dolphins using sound to communicate complex ideas. |
562 | 00:31:20,566 | 00:31:26,600 | Birds demonstrating memories of places, things, and past events. | Birds demonstrating memories of places, things, and past events. |
563 | 00:31:26,633 | 00:31:31,300 | Sea lions that can grasp logic. | Sea lions that can grasp logic. |
564 | 00:31:31,333 | 00:31:35,533 | And evidence that many animals can actually count. | And evidence that many animals can actually count. |
565 | 00:31:37,533 | 00:31:40,333 | Audrey and Tanya now found themselves | Audrey and Tanya now found themselves |
566 | 00:31:40,366 | 00:31:42,466 | among the small but growing ranks of researchers | among the small but growing ranks of researchers |
567 | 00:31:42,500 | 00:31:44,833 | pushing the boundaries of intelligence | pushing the boundaries of intelligence |
568 | 00:31:44,866 | 00:31:47,200 | beyond the animal kingdom altogether, | beyond the animal kingdom altogether, |
569 | 00:31:47,233 | 00:31:50,600 | searching for signs of intelligence in organisms | searching for signs of intelligence in organisms |
570 | 00:31:50,633 | 00:31:54,233 | with no brains at all. | with no brains at all. |
571 | 00:31:54,266 | 00:31:58,566 | The first conclusive evidence was soon found in plants. | The first conclusive evidence was soon found in plants. |
572 | 00:32:02,033 | 00:32:05,700 | In Florence, Italy, the idea of plant intelligence | In Florence, Italy, the idea of plant intelligence |
573 | 00:32:05,733 | 00:32:09,300 | has become the focus of some serious scientific study | has become the focus of some serious scientific study |
574 | 00:32:09,333 | 00:32:11,766 | thanks to these two biologists, | thanks to these two biologists, |
575 | 00:32:11,800 | 00:32:13,800 | Stefano Mancuso | Stefano Mancuso |
576 | 00:32:13,833 | 00:32:16,100 | and Frantisek Baluska, | and Frantisek Baluska, |
577 | 00:32:16,133 | 00:32:21,133 | who founded the Society for Plant Signaling and Behavior. | who founded the Society for Plant Signaling and Behavior. |
578 | 00:32:21,166 | 00:32:25,700 | The notion of intelligence in plants is not new. | The notion of intelligence in plants is not new. |
579 | 00:32:25,733 | 00:32:30,600 | Charles Darwin himself faced ridicule by his peers | Charles Darwin himself faced ridicule by his peers |
580 | 00:32:30,633 | 00:32:33,366 | when, after extensive experimentation, | when, after extensive experimentation, |
581 | 00:32:33,400 | 00:32:37,800 | he proposed that plants possessed a cognitive organ | he proposed that plants possessed a cognitive organ |
582 | 00:32:37,833 | 00:32:42,833 | and that it resided in their root tips. | and that it resided in their root tips. |
583 | 00:32:42,866 | 00:32:46,466 | Darwin says that in the tip of the root, | Darwin says that in the tip of the root, |
584 | 00:32:46,500 | 00:32:49,766 | there's the precise equivalent of a small brain, | there's the precise equivalent of a small brain, |
585 | 00:32:49,800 | 00:32:53,766 | like the brain of an insect, that guides the plant. | like the brain of an insect, that guides the plant. |
586 | 00:32:53,800 | 00:32:56,933 | We started to argue that this theory | We started to argue that this theory |
587 | 00:32:56,966 | 00:32:58,700 | is really not crazy theory. | is really not crazy theory. |
588 | 00:32:58,733 | 00:33:02,333 | They came to this conclusion after conducting | They came to this conclusion after conducting |
589 | 00:33:02,366 | 00:33:04,966 | their own root-tip experiments. | their own root-tip experiments. |
590 | 00:33:06,633 | 00:33:08,500 | It was thought that a root arrived | It was thought that a root arrived |
591 | 00:33:08,533 | 00:33:09,800 | at an obstacle | at an obstacle |
592 | 00:33:09,833 | 00:33:13,733 | and did something like that to find a way out. | and did something like that to find a way out. |
593 | 00:33:13,766 | 00:33:16,800 | Instead, what I saw was different. | Instead, what I saw was different. |
594 | 00:33:16,833 | 00:33:20,633 | The roots turned well before reaching the obstacle. | The roots turned well before reaching the obstacle. |
595 | 00:33:20,666 | 00:33:24,300 | They were able to sense what was around them | They were able to sense what was around them |
596 | 00:33:24,333 | 00:33:28,066 | and calculate the shortest path in response. | and calculate the shortest path in response. |
597 | 00:33:28,100 | 00:33:31,466 | Stefano thought that this kind of "sensing" behavior | Stefano thought that this kind of "sensing" behavior |
598 | 00:33:31,500 | 00:33:34,666 | would require coordination of the cells in the root tip. | would require coordination of the cells in the root tip. |
599 | 00:33:36,700 | 00:33:38,500 | He discovered that a specific region | He discovered that a specific region |
600 | 00:33:38,533 | 00:33:39,966 | was sending out electrical signals | was sending out electrical signals |
601 | 00:33:40,000 | 00:33:42,600 | to the surrounding area. | to the surrounding area. |
602 | 00:33:42,633 | 00:33:47,133 | Could this be the "brain" that Darwin hypothesized? | Could this be the "brain" that Darwin hypothesized? |
603 | 00:33:48,733 | 00:33:52,500 | When this section was cut off, | When this section was cut off, |
604 | 00:33:52,533 | 00:33:55,233 | the root could still grow, | the root could still grow, |
605 | 00:33:55,266 | 00:33:58,600 | but it lost the ability to sense its environment | but it lost the ability to sense its environment |
606 | 00:33:58,633 | 00:34:01,000 | and adapt accordingly. | and adapt accordingly. |
607 | 00:34:01,033 | 00:34:05,466 | From this, Stefano concluded that Darwin was correct: | From this, Stefano concluded that Darwin was correct: |
608 | 00:34:05,500 | 00:34:06,566 | plant roots did appear | plant roots did appear |
609 | 00:34:06,600 | 00:34:10,700 | to contain a kind of sensory organ. | to contain a kind of sensory organ. |
610 | 00:34:12,166 | 00:34:15,066 | Plants are like upside-down humans: | Plants are like upside-down humans: |
611 | 00:34:15,100 | 00:34:16,700 | they have their heads underground, | they have their heads underground, |
612 | 00:34:16,733 | 00:34:20,533 | and the part we can see is the reproductive part. | and the part we can see is the reproductive part. |
613 | 00:34:20,566 | 00:34:21,866 | And that's how we should look at plants, | And that's how we should look at plants, |
614 | 00:34:21,900 | 00:34:24,866 | something like this pot. | something like this pot. |
615 | 00:34:31,200 | 00:34:33,700 | Since plants now did seem to have some form | Since plants now did seem to have some form |
616 | 00:34:33,733 | 00:34:34,966 | of sensory ability, | of sensory ability, |
617 | 00:34:35,000 | 00:34:37,700 | Stefano and Frantisek began searching | Stefano and Frantisek began searching |
618 | 00:34:37,733 | 00:34:39,000 | for more complex behavior | for more complex behavior |
619 | 00:34:39,033 | 00:34:42,800 | which might conclusively demonstrate intelligence: | which might conclusively demonstrate intelligence: |
620 | 00:34:42,833 | 00:34:45,900 | memory and learning. | memory and learning. |
621 | 00:34:45,933 | 00:34:50,200 | One of the most basic types of learning in brained creatures | One of the most basic types of learning in brained creatures |
622 | 00:34:50,233 | 00:34:52,166 | can be seen in these pigeons, | can be seen in these pigeons, |
623 | 00:34:52,200 | 00:34:55,333 | who've learned not to fear humans. | who've learned not to fear humans. |
624 | 00:34:55,366 | 00:34:57,933 | They even tune them out. | They even tune them out. |
625 | 00:34:57,966 | 00:35:00,866 | Habituation, as it's called, | Habituation, as it's called, |
626 | 00:35:00,900 | 00:35:05,000 | enables organisms to focus on the important information, | enables organisms to focus on the important information, |
627 | 00:35:05,033 | 00:35:09,166 | while filtering out the noise in the world around them. | while filtering out the noise in the world around them. |
628 | 00:35:10,833 | 00:35:13,366 | To test for this type of learning in plants, | To test for this type of learning in plants, |
629 | 00:35:13,400 | 00:35:15,000 | Stefano and his colleagues | Stefano and his colleagues |
630 | 00:35:15,033 | 00:35:19,333 | turned to this intriguing specimen, Mimosa pudica, | turned to this intriguing specimen, Mimosa pudica, |
631 | 00:35:19,366 | 00:35:25,233 | which reacts to disturbances by folding its leaves. | which reacts to disturbances by folding its leaves. |
632 | 00:35:25,266 | 00:35:27,466 | If this reaction is purely mechanical, | If this reaction is purely mechanical, |
633 | 00:35:27,500 | 00:35:31,466 | they should respond this way every time they're disturbed, | they should respond this way every time they're disturbed, |
634 | 00:35:31,500 | 00:35:36,166 | even after numerous disturbances that don't prove to be harmful. | even after numerous disturbances that don't prove to be harmful. |
635 | 00:35:36,200 | 00:35:39,200 | So they repeatedly dropped plants | So they repeatedly dropped plants |
636 | 00:35:39,233 | 00:35:41,366 | from a height of six inches-- | from a height of six inches-- |
637 | 00:35:41,400 | 00:35:44,366 | not particularly harmful for pudica. | not particularly harmful for pudica. |
638 | 00:35:44,400 | 00:35:47,333 | And after only five or six drops, | And after only five or six drops, |
639 | 00:35:47,366 | 00:35:51,733 | the plants stopped reacting. | the plants stopped reacting. |
640 | 00:35:51,766 | 00:35:53,400 | And yet, when they were disturbed in other ways, | And yet, when they were disturbed in other ways, |
641 | 00:35:53,433 | 00:35:57,566 | they still responded by folding their leaves. | they still responded by folding their leaves. |
642 | 00:35:59,300 | 00:36:01,700 | We showed that Mimosa pudica was able to memorize | We showed that Mimosa pudica was able to memorize |
643 | 00:36:01,733 | 00:36:02,966 | different stimuli | different stimuli |
644 | 00:36:03,000 | 00:36:05,433 | and to differentiate | and to differentiate |
645 | 00:36:05,466 | 00:36:09,000 | between a dangerous stimulus and one that wasn't dangerous, | between a dangerous stimulus and one that wasn't dangerous, |
646 | 00:36:09,033 | 00:36:11,300 | and then respond accordingly. | and then respond accordingly. |
647 | 00:36:11,333 | 00:36:15,166 | This was, indeed, quite a sensation. | This was, indeed, quite a sensation. |
648 | 00:36:15,200 | 00:36:19,166 | Stefano and his colleagues had documented intriguing evidence | Stefano and his colleagues had documented intriguing evidence |
649 | 00:36:19,200 | 00:36:20,333 | of memory and learning | of memory and learning |
650 | 00:36:20,366 | 00:36:22,966 | in a brainless organism. | in a brainless organism. |
651 | 00:36:30,033 | 00:36:35,900 | For Audrey, this raised a tantalizing question. | For Audrey, this raised a tantalizing question. |
652 | 00:36:35,933 | 00:36:37,300 | So with Physarum we asked, | So with Physarum we asked, |
653 | 00:36:37,333 | 00:36:39,600 | "Are we going to find this kind of ability | "Are we going to find this kind of ability |
654 | 00:36:39,633 | 00:36:42,800 | that can be found in plants?" | that can be found in plants?" |
655 | 00:36:42,833 | 00:36:45,200 | She and Tanya had proven that Physarum used | She and Tanya had proven that Physarum used |
656 | 00:36:45,233 | 00:36:47,366 | a kind of external memory. | a kind of external memory. |
657 | 00:36:47,400 | 00:36:49,900 | But was it possible that Physarum | But was it possible that Physarum |
658 | 00:36:49,933 | 00:36:54,600 | possessed some true internal memory? | possessed some true internal memory? |
659 | 00:36:54,633 | 00:36:57,266 | Is slime mold capable of remembering? | Is slime mold capable of remembering? |
660 | 00:36:57,300 | 00:37:00,033 | Is it capable of learning? | Is it capable of learning? |
661 | 00:37:00,066 | 00:37:02,266 | That question is the Holy Grail. | That question is the Holy Grail. |
662 | 00:37:04,066 | 00:37:06,633 | Proving that Physarum had these capabilities could show | Proving that Physarum had these capabilities could show |
663 | 00:37:06,666 | 00:37:10,633 | that a single-celled creature was capable of intelligence, | that a single-celled creature was capable of intelligence, |
664 | 00:37:10,666 | 00:37:15,233 | and might very well force scientists to reconsider | and might very well force scientists to reconsider |
665 | 00:37:15,266 | 00:37:19,133 | the idea of intelligence itself. | the idea of intelligence itself. |
666 | 00:37:19,166 | 00:37:23,233 | So we set up an experiment to see if Blob learned things-- | So we set up an experiment to see if Blob learned things-- |
667 | 00:37:23,266 | 00:37:25,600 | a habituation experiment. | a habituation experiment. |
668 | 00:37:27,533 | 00:37:29,766 | The objective was to try and habituate Physarum | The objective was to try and habituate Physarum |
669 | 00:37:29,800 | 00:37:33,500 | to a substance it was repulsed by. | to a substance it was repulsed by. |
670 | 00:37:33,533 | 00:37:35,700 | In this case, salt. | In this case, salt. |
671 | 00:37:35,733 | 00:37:39,266 | ||
672 | 00:37:39,300 --> 00:37:42,733 Between this Physarum and a tasty snack | 00:37:39,300 --> 00:37:42,733 Between this Physarum and a tasty snack | ||
673 | 00:37:42,766 | 00:37:47,633 | is a bridge a few centimeters long. | is a bridge a few centimeters long. |
674 | 00:37:47,666 | 00:37:53,400 | Normally, Physarum makes the crossing in about an hour. | Normally, Physarum makes the crossing in about an hour. |
675 | 00:37:53,433 | 00:37:55,333 | ||
676 | 00:37:55,366 --> 00:37:57,533 For her experiment, | 00:37:55,366 --> 00:37:57,533 For her experiment, | ||
677 | 00:37:57,566 | 00:37:59,933 | Audrey coated the bridge in salt. | Audrey coated the bridge in salt. |
678 | 00:37:59,966 | 00:38:05,766 | Not enough to harm Physarum, but enough to leave a bad taste. | Not enough to harm Physarum, but enough to leave a bad taste. |
679 | 00:38:05,800 | 00:38:08,633 | ||
680 | 00:38:08,666 --> 00:38:13,666 It took Blob ten hours to cross the bridge. | 00:38:08,666 --> 00:38:13,666 It took Blob ten hours to cross the bridge. | ||
681 | 00:38:13,700 | 00:38:15,533 | The next day, we'd do it again. | The next day, we'd do it again. |
682 | 00:38:15,566 | 00:38:17,766 | ||
683 | 00:38:17,800 --> 00:38:20,100 By day two, that same Physarum | 00:38:17,800 --> 00:38:20,100 By day two, that same Physarum | ||
684 | 00:38:20,133 | 00:38:23,200 | was moving faster over the salt bridge. | was moving faster over the salt bridge. |
685 | 00:38:23,233 | 00:38:27,800 | This time, it takes eight hours to cross the bridge. | This time, it takes eight hours to cross the bridge. |
686 | 00:38:27,833 | 00:38:30,866 | Audrey repeated this for five days, and each day, | Audrey repeated this for five days, and each day, |
687 | 00:38:30,900 | 00:38:37,100 | Physarum moved more quickly across the salt bridge. | Physarum moved more quickly across the salt bridge. |
688 | 00:38:37,133 | 00:38:40,233 | By the fifth day, Blob takes no more time | By the fifth day, Blob takes no more time |
689 | 00:38:40,266 | 00:38:44,133 | than our "control" Blob that crossed the bridge with no salt. | than our "control" Blob that crossed the bridge with no salt. |
690 | 00:38:44,166 | 00:38:50,133 | So Physarum ends up getting used to a substance it doesn't like. | So Physarum ends up getting used to a substance it doesn't like. |
691 | 00:38:50,166 | 00:38:53,633 | It seemed that Physarum learned to tolerate, | It seemed that Physarum learned to tolerate, |
692 | 00:38:53,666 | 00:38:56,133 | or habituate to the salt. | or habituate to the salt. |
693 | 00:38:56,166 | 00:38:59,400 | ||
694 | 00:38:59,433 --> 00:39:04,100 Had Physarum actually learned that the salt wasn't harmful? | 00:38:59,433 --> 00:39:04,100 Had Physarum actually learned that the salt wasn't harmful? | ||
695 | 00:39:04,133 | 00:39:09,866 | If this were true, it would mean that somewhere, inside Physarum, | If this were true, it would mean that somewhere, inside Physarum, |
696 | 00:39:09,900 | 00:39:14,800 | there was a form of memory. | there was a form of memory. |
697 | 00:39:14,833 | 00:39:16,300 | Of course, some were skeptical, | Of course, some were skeptical, |
698 | 00:39:16,333 | 00:39:18,000 | because we were up against the dogma | because we were up against the dogma |
699 | 00:39:18,033 | 00:39:19,733 | that learning was strictly reserved | that learning was strictly reserved |
700 | 00:39:19,766 | 00:39:21,233 | for organisms with a brain. | for organisms with a brain. |
701 | 00:39:21,266 | 00:39:27,266 | So Audrey wasn't leaving things to chance. | So Audrey wasn't leaving things to chance. |
702 | 00:39:27,300 | 00:39:29,966 | If you want to prove | If you want to prove |
703 | 00:39:30,000 | 00:39:31,433 | that a single-celled creature can learn, | that a single-celled creature can learn, |
704 | 00:39:31,466 | 00:39:32,833 | you've got to be sure | you've got to be sure |
705 | 00:39:32,866 | 00:39:34,933 | you can convince your colleagues. | you can convince your colleagues. |
706 | 00:39:34,966 | 00:39:36,833 | On each of these tiny salt bridges, | On each of these tiny salt bridges, |
707 | 00:39:36,866 | 00:39:40,233 | they repeated the experiment, again and again. | they repeated the experiment, again and again. |
708 | 00:39:40,266 | 00:39:42,700 | 4,000 times | 4,000 times |
709 | 00:39:42,733 | 00:39:46,233 | on 4,000 different Blobs. | on 4,000 different Blobs. |
710 | 00:39:46,266 | 00:39:50,766 | ||
711 | 00:39:50,800 --> 00:39:53,400 The results were consistent. | 00:39:50,800 --> 00:39:53,400 The results were consistent. | ||
712 | 00:39:53,433 | 00:39:55,533 | Physarum had altered its behavior | Physarum had altered its behavior |
713 | 00:39:55,566 | 00:39:57,133 | through its past experiences, | through its past experiences, |
714 | 00:39:57,166 | 00:40:02,933 | a fundamental definition of learning. | a fundamental definition of learning. |
715 | 00:40:02,966 | 00:40:05,566 | Audrey had demonstrated learning and memory | Audrey had demonstrated learning and memory |
716 | 00:40:05,600 | 00:40:08,133 | in a single-celled organism. | in a single-celled organism. |
717 | 00:40:08,166 | 00:40:10,900 | A creature this simple | A creature this simple |
718 | 00:40:10,933 | 00:40:15,833 | demonstrated the ability to learn. | demonstrated the ability to learn. |
719 | 00:40:15,866 | 00:40:17,766 | But how do they do it? | But how do they do it? |
720 | 00:40:25,333 | 00:40:28,300 | Audrey showed very nicely in her work | Audrey showed very nicely in her work |
721 | 00:40:28,333 | 00:40:32,266 | that Physarum clearly has memory and learned from its experience | that Physarum clearly has memory and learned from its experience |
722 | 00:40:32,300 | 00:40:34,600 | to adaptively make decisions about where it's going to go | to adaptively make decisions about where it's going to go |
723 | 00:40:34,633 | 00:40:36,500 | and how it's going to explore its environment. | and how it's going to explore its environment. |
724 | 00:40:36,533 | 00:40:39,566 | All of these are fundamental components to being smart. | All of these are fundamental components to being smart. |
725 | 00:40:39,600 | 00:40:43,600 | Director of the Allen Discovery Center Michael Levin | Director of the Allen Discovery Center Michael Levin |
726 | 00:40:43,633 | 00:40:46,233 | listens in on the electrical signals | listens in on the electrical signals |
727 | 00:40:46,266 | 00:40:48,200 | exchanged between cells. | exchanged between cells. |
728 | 00:40:48,233 | 00:40:52,933 | My lab focuses on bioelectricity. | My lab focuses on bioelectricity. |
729 | 00:40:52,966 | 00:40:54,833 | All cells are electrically active, | All cells are electrically active, |
730 | 00:40:54,866 | 00:40:58,633 | and these electrical signals enable cells | and these electrical signals enable cells |
731 | 00:40:58,666 | 00:41:01,633 | to join into networks that store memories | to join into networks that store memories |
732 | 00:41:01,666 | 00:41:03,400 | and process information and make decisions. | and process information and make decisions. |
733 | 00:41:03,433 | 00:41:07,433 | It was previously thought that these cognitive abilities | It was previously thought that these cognitive abilities |
734 | 00:41:07,466 | 00:41:10,700 | came from the conversations between many cells. | came from the conversations between many cells. |
735 | 00:41:10,733 | 00:41:15,366 | But Physarum had just proven that wrong. | But Physarum had just proven that wrong. |
736 | 00:41:15,400 | 00:41:17,466 | Physarum is one single cell. | Physarum is one single cell. |
737 | 00:41:17,500 | 00:41:19,733 | And so this takes us away from questions | And so this takes us away from questions |
738 | 00:41:19,766 | 00:41:22,333 | of cell-to-cell communication, | of cell-to-cell communication, |
739 | 00:41:22,366 | 00:41:24,233 | all these thingsthat multicellular organisms do | all these thingsthat multicellular organisms do |
740 | 00:41:24,266 | 00:41:27,833 | that we think of as really important for cognition, | that we think of as really important for cognition, |
741 | 00:41:27,866 | 00:41:29,533 | but clearly now, we see | but clearly now, we see |
742 | 00:41:29,566 | 00:41:31,466 | that this can be done by one cell. | that this can be done by one cell. |
743 | 00:41:31,500 | 00:41:34,500 | Michael learned a lot about cellular communication | Michael learned a lot about cellular communication |
744 | 00:41:34,533 | 00:41:37,366 | from his work with a curious multi-celled creature | from his work with a curious multi-celled creature |
745 | 00:41:37,400 | 00:41:39,333 | called a planarian. | called a planarian. |
746 | 00:41:46,433 | 00:41:49,533 | A small aquatic worm with the unusual ability | A small aquatic worm with the unusual ability |
747 | 00:41:49,566 | 00:41:56,166 | to regrow missing or damaged parts of its body. | to regrow missing or damaged parts of its body. |
748 | 00:41:56,200 | 00:41:58,166 | They regenerate every part of the body. | They regenerate every part of the body. |
749 | 00:41:58,200 | 00:42:00,900 | So if cut into pieces, every piece of a planarian | So if cut into pieces, every piece of a planarian |
750 | 00:42:00,933 | 00:42:04,433 | knows exactly what a standard planarian body should look like. | knows exactly what a standard planarian body should look like. |
751 | 00:42:04,466 | 00:42:07,933 | ||
752 | 00:42:07,966 | 00:42:09,500 | When a planarian is cut in half, | When a planarian is cut in half, |
753 | 00:42:09,533 | 00:42:14,333 | its cells regenerate to rebuild a head at one end, | its cells regenerate to rebuild a head at one end, |
754 | 00:42:14,366 | 00:42:16,900 | and a tail at the other. | and a tail at the other. |
755 | 00:42:16,933 | 00:42:18,766 | Everything that's missing in the correct location, | Everything that's missing in the correct location, |
756 | 00:42:18,800 | 00:42:22,266 | and it stops when it's done. | and it stops when it's done. |
757 | 00:42:22,300 | 00:42:24,633 | But how? | But how? |
758 | 00:42:24,666 | 00:42:28,800 | Michael and his team began to tinker with planarian cells | Michael and his team began to tinker with planarian cells |
759 | 00:42:28,833 | 00:42:30,766 | to see if they could affect how these worms | to see if they could affect how these worms |
760 | 00:42:30,800 | 00:42:35,133 | controlled their regeneration. | controlled their regeneration. |
761 | 00:42:35,166 | 00:42:36,466 | We've discovered | We've discovered |
762 | 00:42:36,500 | 00:42:38,600 | that part of this control is an electric circuit | that part of this control is an electric circuit |
763 | 00:42:38,633 | 00:42:41,433 | that allows these cells to store this kind of information. | that allows these cells to store this kind of information. |
764 | 00:42:44,433 | 00:42:47,533 | And what we found is that if we temporarily-- | And what we found is that if we temporarily-- |
765 | 00:42:47,566 | 00:42:48,900 | just for 48 hours-- | just for 48 hours-- |
766 | 00:42:48,933 | 00:42:52,100 | alter this electric circuit, and, in essence, | alter this electric circuit, and, in essence, |
767 | 00:42:52,133 | 00:42:55,466 | rewrite the finely encoded pattern memory | rewrite the finely encoded pattern memory |
768 | 00:42:55,500 | 00:42:56,500 | of these tissues... | of these tissues... |
769 | 00:42:59,766 | 00:43:02,000 | When they regenerate, they can regenerate | When they regenerate, they can regenerate |
770 | 00:43:02,033 | 00:43:05,233 | as two-headed animals. | as two-headed animals. |
771 | 00:43:05,266 | 00:43:07,666 | Michael and his team did this without any kind | Michael and his team did this without any kind |
772 | 00:43:07,700 | 00:43:09,866 | of gene editing. | of gene editing. |
773 | 00:43:09,900 | 00:43:12,833 | It was done purely through the manipulation of the signals | It was done purely through the manipulation of the signals |
774 | 00:43:12,866 | 00:43:15,200 | between its cells. | between its cells. |
775 | 00:43:15,233 | 00:43:17,366 | And so this tells you | And so this tells you |
776 | 00:43:17,400 | 00:43:18,900 | that the information that is needed | that the information that is needed |
777 | 00:43:18,933 | 00:43:21,133 | to specify what kind of body you are going to make | to specify what kind of body you are going to make |
778 | 00:43:21,166 | 00:43:25,400 | is not entirely specified in the genome. | is not entirely specified in the genome. |
779 | 00:43:25,433 | 00:43:30,233 | Michael says that cells function like electronic processors. | Michael says that cells function like electronic processors. |
780 | 00:43:30,266 | 00:43:32,533 | Bioelectricity is the software that is run on these cells, | Bioelectricity is the software that is run on these cells, |
781 | 00:43:32,566 | 00:43:37,533 | and it can be rewritten. | and it can be rewritten. |
782 | 00:43:39,833 | 00:43:42,866 | Michael wondered if Physarum was using bioelectricity | Michael wondered if Physarum was using bioelectricity |
783 | 00:43:42,900 | 00:43:44,966 | as its system of memory. | as its system of memory. |
784 | 00:43:47,100 | 00:43:49,000 | What does it mean for a chunk of cytoplasm | What does it mean for a chunk of cytoplasm |
785 | 00:43:49,033 | 00:43:51,400 | that you can pick up and hold in your hand and analyze | that you can pick up and hold in your hand and analyze |
786 | 00:43:51,433 | 00:43:52,633 | molecularly, electrically, and so on | molecularly, electrically, and so on |
787 | 00:43:52,666 | 00:43:56,133 | to really store an experience or a memory | to really store an experience or a memory |
788 | 00:43:56,166 | 00:43:58,933 | or an inference from past experiences? | or an inference from past experiences? |
789 | 00:43:58,966 | 00:44:02,000 | So they tested Physarum's veins | So they tested Physarum's veins |
790 | 00:44:02,033 | 00:44:04,900 | for signs of bioelectrical signals, | for signs of bioelectrical signals, |
791 | 00:44:04,933 | 00:44:09,466 | and found that it produced electrical waves | and found that it produced electrical waves |
792 | 00:44:09,500 | 00:44:14,466 | that matched the flow of its protoplasm within. | that matched the flow of its protoplasm within. |
793 | 00:44:16,033 | 00:44:18,900 | What we're doing is attempting to read the mind | What we're doing is attempting to read the mind |
794 | 00:44:18,933 | 00:44:20,833 | of the Physarum. | of the Physarum. |
795 | 00:44:20,866 | 00:44:24,466 | As it turns out, reading Physarum's mind | As it turns out, reading Physarum's mind |
796 | 00:44:24,500 | 00:44:27,300 | is all about body language. | is all about body language. |
797 | 00:44:27,333 | 00:44:29,300 | One of the important things about Physarum, | One of the important things about Physarum, |
798 | 00:44:29,333 | 00:44:34,533 | its body structure and its behavior are simultaneous. | its body structure and its behavior are simultaneous. |
799 | 00:44:34,566 | 00:44:37,466 | In other words, the behavior of the slime mold is executed | In other words, the behavior of the slime mold is executed |
800 | 00:44:37,500 | 00:44:40,500 | by altering its body structure. | by altering its body structure. |
801 | 00:44:40,533 | 00:44:43,733 | Meaning, if Physarum was communicating internally | Meaning, if Physarum was communicating internally |
802 | 00:44:43,766 | 00:44:47,333 | using bioelectric signals, | using bioelectric signals, |
803 | 00:44:47,366 | 00:44:51,966 | those signals would change along with Physarum's shape. | those signals would change along with Physarum's shape. |
804 | 00:44:53,500 | 00:44:57,533 | Michael's colleague Andrew Adamatzky | Michael's colleague Andrew Adamatzky |
805 | 00:44:57,566 | 00:44:59,066 | attempted to communicate with Physarum | attempted to communicate with Physarum |
806 | 00:44:59,100 | 00:45:02,200 | by sending it electrical signals. | by sending it electrical signals. |
807 | 00:45:02,233 | 00:45:05,500 | He found that different signals would cause Physarum | He found that different signals would cause Physarum |
808 | 00:45:05,533 | 00:45:08,333 | to grow in different ways. | to grow in different ways. |
809 | 00:45:08,366 | 00:45:11,133 | Some signals sent between two points | Some signals sent between two points |
810 | 00:45:11,166 | 00:45:13,233 | made Physarum reconfigure its body | made Physarum reconfigure its body |
811 | 00:45:13,266 | 00:45:16,333 | as it would between two oat flakes. | as it would between two oat flakes. |
812 | 00:45:16,366 | 00:45:19,466 | Other signals repelled Physarum, | Other signals repelled Physarum, |
813 | 00:45:19,500 | 00:45:23,866 | causing it to shift its body away from the source, | causing it to shift its body away from the source, |
814 | 00:45:23,900 | 00:45:26,866 | much in the way it does with salt. | much in the way it does with salt. |
815 | 00:45:28,233 | 00:45:30,833 | Andrew and Michael believe that this shows Physarum | Andrew and Michael believe that this shows Physarum |
816 | 00:45:30,866 | 00:45:34,033 | is using bioelectricity to process information | is using bioelectricity to process information |
817 | 00:45:34,066 | 00:45:36,866 | as it adapts to the world around it, | as it adapts to the world around it, |
818 | 00:45:36,900 | 00:45:41,300 | and that Physarum's simple design was a step along the way | and that Physarum's simple design was a step along the way |
819 | 00:45:41,333 | 00:45:44,266 | towards the evolution of multicellular organisms | towards the evolution of multicellular organisms |
820 | 00:45:44,300 | 00:45:48,133 | with specialized cells like neurons | with specialized cells like neurons |
821 | 00:45:48,166 | 00:45:51,666 | and more complex brain circuitry. | and more complex brain circuitry. |
822 | 00:45:51,700 | 00:45:53,533 | I think evolution discovered very early on | I think evolution discovered very early on |
823 | 00:45:53,566 | 00:45:56,466 | that electricity and the circuits that you can make | that electricity and the circuits that you can make |
824 | 00:45:56,500 | 00:45:58,500 | out of very simple electrical components | out of very simple electrical components |
825 | 00:45:58,533 | 00:46:01,966 | are an extremely powerful and robust system | are an extremely powerful and robust system |
826 | 00:46:02,000 | 00:46:03,633 | for processing information, | for processing information, |
827 | 00:46:03,666 | 00:46:05,300 | making decisions, storing memories. | making decisions, storing memories. |
828 | 00:46:08,133 | 00:46:11,100 | Things it now appears that Physarum was doing | Things it now appears that Physarum was doing |
829 | 00:46:11,133 | 00:46:17,200 | long before the arrival of creatures with brains. | long before the arrival of creatures with brains. |
830 | 00:46:27,400 | 00:46:28,600 | We started to wonder | We started to wonder |
831 | 00:46:28,633 | 00:46:31,700 | whether a Blob that had learned something | whether a Blob that had learned something |
832 | 00:46:31,733 | 00:46:36,300 | could transfer its learning to another Blob. | could transfer its learning to another Blob. |
833 | 00:46:36,333 | 00:46:42,433 | could Physarum communicate a memory? | could Physarum communicate a memory? |
834 | 00:46:42,466 | 00:46:44,233 | Because of what she had learned | Because of what she had learned |
835 | 00:46:44,266 | 00:46:45,833 | about Physarum's shape-shifting nature, | about Physarum's shape-shifting nature, |
836 | 00:46:45,866 | 00:46:48,233 | Audrey knew she could cut it into pieces | Audrey knew she could cut it into pieces |
837 | 00:46:48,266 | 00:46:52,466 | and it would re-form. | and it would re-form. |
838 | 00:46:52,500 | 00:46:54,666 | If you take a Blob and cut it in half, | If you take a Blob and cut it in half, |
839 | 00:46:54,700 | 00:46:57,333 | you always end up with two separate Blobs. | you always end up with two separate Blobs. |
840 | 00:46:57,366 | 00:47:00,133 | So how does that work? | So how does that work? |
841 | 00:47:00,166 | 00:47:04,033 | It works because of Physarum's odd, soupy anatomy. | It works because of Physarum's odd, soupy anatomy. |
842 | 00:47:04,066 | 00:47:08,166 | Most single-celled organisms have a single nucleus. | Most single-celled organisms have a single nucleus. |
843 | 00:47:08,200 | 00:47:09,800 | When they grow by dividing, | When they grow by dividing, |
844 | 00:47:09,833 | 00:47:13,900 | each new cell still has a single nucleus. | each new cell still has a single nucleus. |
845 | 00:47:13,933 | 00:47:15,866 | If you were to cut that in half | If you were to cut that in half |
846 | 00:47:15,900 | 00:47:18,800 | you'd have two halves of a dead cell. | you'd have two halves of a dead cell. |
847 | 00:47:18,833 | 00:47:23,600 | But when Physarum grows, its nuclei divide, | But when Physarum grows, its nuclei divide, |
848 | 00:47:23,633 | 00:47:28,366 | and yet they all remain within the same cell membrane. | and yet they all remain within the same cell membrane. |
849 | 00:47:28,400 | 00:47:31,733 | And that's why, when you divide one Physarum in half, | And that's why, when you divide one Physarum in half, |
850 | 00:47:31,766 | 00:47:36,266 | you will have two complete living Physarum. | you will have two complete living Physarum. |
851 | 00:47:36,300 | 00:47:37,500 | And these Physarum | And these Physarum |
852 | 00:47:37,533 | 00:47:40,433 | can also join together with any other Physarum | can also join together with any other Physarum |
853 | 00:47:40,466 | 00:47:42,100 | that they encounter. | that they encounter. |
854 | 00:47:44,533 | 00:47:47,333 | If you then take those two Blobs and put them side by side, | If you then take those two Blobs and put them side by side, |
855 | 00:47:47,366 | 00:47:48,366 | they'll combine. | they'll combine. |
856 | 00:47:48,400 | 00:47:52,600 | For Blobs, one plus one equals one. | For Blobs, one plus one equals one. |
857 | 00:47:52,633 | 00:47:56,433 | The fusion occurs when the two membranes stick together. | The fusion occurs when the two membranes stick together. |
858 | 00:47:56,466 | 00:47:59,166 | They open up, and then the networks of veins | They open up, and then the networks of veins |
859 | 00:47:59,200 | 00:48:02,900 | connect to create a single, autonomous Blob. | connect to create a single, autonomous Blob. |
860 | 00:48:04,566 | 00:48:07,333 | So Audrey brought together thousands of Physarum | So Audrey brought together thousands of Physarum |
861 | 00:48:07,366 | 00:48:09,100 | that she had accustomed to salt | that she had accustomed to salt |
862 | 00:48:09,133 | 00:48:14,633 | with others that weren't-- so-called naiïve ones. | with others that weren't-- so-called naiïve ones. |
863 | 00:48:17,500 | 00:48:19,933 | If we allowed two Blobs to fuse together for three hours, | If we allowed two Blobs to fuse together for three hours, |
864 | 00:48:19,966 | 00:48:23,700 | the information passed from one to the other. | the information passed from one to the other. |
865 | 00:48:23,733 | 00:48:27,600 | The naiïve Blob now liked salt. | The naiïve Blob now liked salt. |
866 | 00:48:27,633 | 00:48:30,666 | It looked as though the memory was passed | It looked as though the memory was passed |
867 | 00:48:30,700 | 00:48:34,600 | through the system of veins. | through the system of veins. |
868 | 00:48:34,633 | 00:48:37,666 | Slime mold demonstrated the ability to communicate | Slime mold demonstrated the ability to communicate |
869 | 00:48:37,700 | 00:48:40,833 | the information it had learned. | the information it had learned. |
870 | 00:48:44,166 | 00:48:46,366 | And over time, Audrey began to notice | And over time, Audrey began to notice |
871 | 00:48:46,400 | 00:48:48,800 | that Physarum from different places | that Physarum from different places |
872 | 00:48:48,833 | 00:48:52,666 | showed different behaviors. | showed different behaviors. |
873 | 00:48:52,700 | 00:48:56,433 | To Audrey, this is slime mold personality. | To Audrey, this is slime mold personality. |
874 | 00:48:56,466 | 00:48:58,666 | We realized that there were lots of differences | We realized that there were lots of differences |
875 | 00:48:58,700 | 00:49:00,000 | between our Blobs. | between our Blobs. |
876 | 00:49:00,033 | 00:49:03,600 | Depending on where they came from, | Depending on where they came from, |
877 | 00:49:03,633 | 00:49:07,466 | her Physarum seemed to have distinct characteristics. | her Physarum seemed to have distinct characteristics. |
878 | 00:49:07,500 | 00:49:10,500 | The Japanese Physarum is fast. | The Japanese Physarum is fast. |
879 | 00:49:10,533 | 00:49:14,833 | The Australian careful and well-mannered. | The Australian careful and well-mannered. |
880 | 00:49:14,866 | 00:49:17,500 | Its behavior is much more consistent | Its behavior is much more consistent |
881 | 00:49:17,533 | 00:49:18,900 | from one day to another | from one day to another |
882 | 00:49:18,933 | 00:49:20,100 | and it does not escape. | and it does not escape. |
883 | 00:49:20,133 | 00:49:24,566 | The American is... problematic. | The American is... problematic. |
884 | 00:49:24,600 | 00:49:27,166 | When the American Blob arrived, | When the American Blob arrived, |
885 | 00:49:27,200 | 00:49:29,600 | we gave it organic oat flakes. | we gave it organic oat flakes. |
886 | 00:49:29,633 | 00:49:31,000 | And it completely refused. | And it completely refused. |
887 | 00:49:31,033 | 00:49:33,266 | It even got out of its box | It even got out of its box |
888 | 00:49:33,300 | 00:49:36,066 | because it preferred the well-known American brand. | because it preferred the well-known American brand. |
889 | 00:49:39,033 | 00:49:43,000 | She put them to the test in a 250-millimeter dash. | She put them to the test in a 250-millimeter dash. |
890 | 00:49:44,566 | 00:49:47,600 | And out of the blocks, Japan is certainly showing speed, | And out of the blocks, Japan is certainly showing speed, |
891 | 00:49:47,633 | 00:49:50,600 | with America close behind. | with America close behind. |
892 | 00:49:50,633 | 00:49:51,933 | The Japanese Blob | The Japanese Blob |
893 | 00:49:51,966 | 00:49:54,900 | is extremely fast, but often makes bad decisions. | is extremely fast, but often makes bad decisions. |
894 | 00:49:54,933 | 00:49:58,100 | Australia has not yet started. | Australia has not yet started. |
895 | 00:49:58,133 | 00:49:59,266 | The Australian Blob | The Australian Blob |
896 | 00:49:59,300 | 00:50:01,600 | takes a little more time to make decisions. | takes a little more time to make decisions. |
897 | 00:50:01,633 | 00:50:05,900 | Japan, now sending pseudopods in the wrong direction, | Japan, now sending pseudopods in the wrong direction, |
898 | 00:50:05,933 | 00:50:07,333 | has lost its lead to the U.S. | has lost its lead to the U.S. |
899 | 00:50:07,366 | 00:50:10,433 | But the U.S. appears to be slowing down, | But the U.S. appears to be slowing down, |
900 | 00:50:10,466 | 00:50:12,133 | possibly attempting an escape. | possibly attempting an escape. |
901 | 00:50:12,166 | 00:50:16,000 | And Japan takes back the lead. | And Japan takes back the lead. |
902 | 00:50:16,033 | 00:50:19,400 | Australia still not sure whether to start. | Australia still not sure whether to start. |
903 | 00:50:19,433 | 00:50:22,300 | America, now moving forward again... | America, now moving forward again... |
904 | 00:50:22,333 | 00:50:24,900 | And the winner... | And the winner... |
905 | 00:50:24,933 | 00:50:28,266 | Japan! | Japan! |
906 | 00:50:35,633 | 00:50:38,033 | The discoveries of these pioneers | The discoveries of these pioneers |
907 | 00:50:38,066 | 00:50:40,466 | studying cognition in brainless organisms | studying cognition in brainless organisms |
908 | 00:50:40,500 | 00:50:44,866 | have scientists rethinking thinking. | have scientists rethinking thinking. |
909 | 00:50:44,900 | 00:50:48,966 | Organisms like slime mold provide a window | Organisms like slime mold provide a window |
910 | 00:50:49,000 | 00:50:50,700 | into evolution's early experiments | into evolution's early experiments |
911 | 00:50:50,733 | 00:50:53,666 | in problem solving. | in problem solving. |
912 | 00:50:53,700 | 00:50:56,633 | We're just starting to scratch the surface of understanding | We're just starting to scratch the surface of understanding |
913 | 00:50:56,666 | 00:50:58,966 | the cognitive capabilities of these really | the cognitive capabilities of these really |
914 | 00:50:59,000 | 00:51:03,233 | radically different biological architectures. | radically different biological architectures. |
915 | 00:51:03,266 | 00:51:08,133 | We can think of them as how intelligence started way back. | We can think of them as how intelligence started way back. |
916 | 00:51:08,166 | 00:51:10,333 | The early origins of decision making. | The early origins of decision making. |
917 | 00:51:10,366 | 00:51:14,000 | We can also learn a little bit about some of the rules | We can also learn a little bit about some of the rules |
918 | 00:51:14,033 | 00:51:15,566 | that underlie problem solving | that underlie problem solving |
919 | 00:51:15,600 | 00:51:17,566 | across lots of different types of systems. | across lots of different types of systems. |
920 | 00:51:19,533 | 00:51:22,633 | And more importantly, for us, at least, | And more importantly, for us, at least, |
921 | 00:51:22,666 | 00:51:25,566 | early solutions to problem solving like these | early solutions to problem solving like these |
922 | 00:51:25,600 | 00:51:29,966 | would lead to the specialization of cells. | would lead to the specialization of cells. |
923 | 00:51:30,000 | 00:51:32,366 | They're an example of the most basic form | They're an example of the most basic form |
924 | 00:51:32,400 | 00:51:33,733 | of multicellularity. | of multicellularity. |
925 | 00:51:33,766 | 00:51:36,833 | They don't have organs or anything like that, | They don't have organs or anything like that, |
926 | 00:51:36,866 | 00:51:39,133 | but they're the very beginning of what we would expect to see | but they're the very beginning of what we would expect to see |
927 | 00:51:39,166 | 00:51:41,333 | in multicellular life. | in multicellular life. |
928 | 00:51:41,366 | 00:51:45,233 | Neurons did not appear from scratch during evolution, | Neurons did not appear from scratch during evolution, |
929 | 00:51:45,266 | 00:51:47,400 | but actually are the result | but actually are the result |
930 | 00:51:47,433 | 00:51:49,733 | of the specialization of much more ancient cells. | of the specialization of much more ancient cells. |
931 | 00:51:49,766 | 00:51:52,900 | All of the machinery thatwe find in neurons, in synapses, | All of the machinery thatwe find in neurons, in synapses, |
932 | 00:51:52,933 | 00:51:54,200 | all of these things were present | all of these things were present |
933 | 00:51:54,233 | 00:51:57,166 | even in our unicellular ancestor. | even in our unicellular ancestor. |
934 | 00:51:57,200 | 00:52:01,033 | and eventually, to creatures like us. | and eventually, to creatures like us. |
934 | 00:51:57,200 | 00:52:01,033 | and eventually, to creatures like us. | and eventually, to creatures like us. |